Abstract
A comprehensive landslide classification system is an essential tool for studying the development law, failure mode, disaster mechanism, and space prediction on the southeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. However, there is no unanimous agreement on the types of either the landslides in this study site or of rock-related slope failures in general. Thus, the aim of the present study is to take rock mass structure and geo-mechanical action characteristics into account to establish a model of a landslide division system in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. On the basis of digital elevation models, field investigations, and literature surveys, we analysed the distribution and failure mode of the landslides in the study area. The geological structure and characteristics of twenty landslides are studied. The geo-mechanical actions of the seismic fault zone and deep-cutting alpine gorge landform on the southeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau are analysed to better understand the failure modes. We divided the landslides according to five categories rock mass structure and four main geo-mechanical effects controlling landslide development. The failure mode of the typical type observed in the southeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is defined as follows: accumulation slip type, bedding shear type, unloading cutting off type, exogenetic type, wedge landslide, debris flow and freeze–thaw landslide. The proposed types of rock-related landslides are incorporated in the Oldrich Hungr update classification and provide compatibility for the southeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and other regions with similar geomorphic conditions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
modified from Li et al. (2021)]
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alimohammadlou Y, Najafi A, Yalcin A (2013) Landslide process and impacts: A proposed classification method. CATENA 104:219–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.11.013
Chen J, Dai F, Lv T et al (2013a) Holocene landslide-dammed lake deposits in the Upper Jinsha River, SE Tibetan Plateau and their ages. Quatern Int 298:107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.09.018
Chen J, Dai F, Lv T, Cui Z (2013b) Holocene landslide-dammed lake deposits in the Upper Jinsha River, SE Tibetan Plateau and their ages. Quat Int 298:107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.09.018
Chen Z, Yan S, Zhao D et al (2015) A study of distribution rule of geostress in Qinghai-Tibet area. Adv Earth Sci 30(8):915–921 (in Chinese)
Chen ML, Lü PF, Zhang SL et al (2018) Time evolution and spatial accumulation of progressive failure for Xinhua slope in the Dagangshan reservoir, Southwest China. Landslides 15(3):565–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0946-8
Chen D, Xu Q, Zheng G et al (2020) Study on deformation evolution of wedge landslide in complex layered soft rock based on centrifugal model test. Rock Soil Mech 41(10):3375–3384. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2020.0109 (in Chinese)
Dai F, Deng J (2020) Development characteristics of landslide hazards in Three-rivers basin of southeast Tibetan Plateau. Adv Eng Sci 52(5):3–15. https://doi.org/10.15961/j.jsuese.202000651 (in Chinese)
Davies TRH (1982) Spreading of rock avalanche debris by mechanical fluidization. Rock Mech 15(1):9–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01239474
Fan X, Xu Q, Scaringi G et al (2017) Failure mechanism and kinematics of the deadly June 24th 2017 Xinmo landslide, Maoxian, Sichuan, China. Landslides 14(6):2129–2146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0907-7
Gorum T, Fan X, van Westen CJ et al (2011) Distribution pattern of earthquake-induced landslides triggered by the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Geomorphology 133(3–4):152–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.12.030
Hewitt K, Clague JJ, Orwin JF (2008) Legacies of catastrophic rock slope failures in mountain landscapes. Earth-Sci Rev 87(1–2):1–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.10.002
Holt WE, Ni JF, Wallace TC et al (1991) The active tectonics of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and surrounding regions. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 96(B9):14595–14632. https://doi.org/10.1029/91JB01021
Huang R (2009) Some catastrophic landslides since the twentieth century in the southwest of China. Landslides 6(1):69–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-009-0142-y
Huang RQ, Li WL (2011) Formation, distribution and risk control of landslides in China. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 3(2):97–116. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1235.2011.00097
Huang RQ, Qiang XU, Junjie H (2011) Mechanism and geo-mechanics models of landslides triggered by 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake. J Mt Sci 8(2):200–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-011-2104-9
Hungr O, Evans SG, Bovis MJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) A review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7(3):221–238. https://doi.org/10.2113/gseegeosci.7.3.221
Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Landslides 11(2):167–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Hutchinson JN (1988) General report: morphological and geotechnical parameters of landslides in relation to geology and hydrogeology. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on landslides. Landslides, Lausanne, pp 3–35.
Leandro R, Alejano I-M, Martínez-Alegría R (2010) Analysis of a complex toppling-circular slope failure. Eng Geol 114(1):93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.03.005
Li Y, Chen J, Zhou F, Song S, Zhang Y, Gu F, Cao C (2020) Identification of ancient river-blocking events and analysis of the mechanisms for the formation of landslide dams in the Suwalong section of the upper Jinsha River SE Tibetan Plateau. Geomorphology 368:107351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107351
Li Y, Feng X, Yao A et al (2021) A massive ancient river-damming landslide triggered by buckling failure in the upper jinsha river, se tibetan plateau. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80(7):5391–5403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02293-4
Molnar P, Tapponnier P (1975) Cenozoic Tectonics of Asia: Effects of a Continental Collision: Features of recent continental tectonics in Asia can be interpreted as results of the India-Eurasia collision. Science 189(4201):419–426. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.189.4201.419
Nichol SL, Hungr O, Evans SG (2002) Large-scale brittle and ductile toppling of rock slopes. Can Geotech J 39(4):773–788. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-027
Peng C, Rong C, Lingzhi X et al (2014) Risk analysis of mountain hazards in Tibetan Plateau under global warming. Progressus Inquisitiones De Mutatione Climatis 10(2):103–109. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1719.2014.02.004.(inChinese)
Peng D, Qiang X, Liu F et al (2017) Distribution and failure modes of the landslides in Heitai terrace, China. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.016
Peng D, Qiang X, Liu F et al (2018) Distribution and failure modes of the landslides in Heitai terrace, China. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.016
Qi S, Xu Q, Lan H et al (2010) Spatial distribution analysis of landslides triggered by 2008512 Wenchuan Earthquake, China. Eng Geol 116(1–2):95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.07.011
Sun G, Zheng H, Tang H et al (2016a) Huangtupo landslide stability under water level fluctuations of the Three Gorges reservoir. Landslides 13(5):1167–1179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0637-7
Sun G, Zheng H, Huang Y et al (2016b) Parameter inversion and deformation mechanism of Sanmendong landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir region under the combined effect of reservoir water level fluctuation and rainfall. Eng Geol 205:133–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.10.014
Sun G, Yang Y, Cheng S et al (2017) Phreatic line calculation and stability analysis of slopes under the combined effect of reservoir water level fluctuations and rainfall. Can Geotech J 54(5):631–645. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0315
Sun G, Lin S, Zheng H et al (2020) The virtual element method strength reduction technique for the stability analysis of stony soil slopes. Comput Geotech 119:103349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103349
Varnes DJ (1978) Slope movement types and processes. Special Rep 176:11–33
Wang Y, Zhou L (1999) Spatial distribution and mechanism of geological hazards along the oil pipeline planned in western China. Eng Geol 51(3):195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(98)00036-2
Wang YF, Cheng QG, Lin QW et al (2018) Insights into the kinematics and dynamics of the Luanshibao rock avalanche (Tibetan Plateau, China) based on its complex surface landforms. Geomorphology 317:170–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.05.025
Wen B, Zeng Q, Yan T et al (2020) Preliminary analysis on initial failure modes of large rock avalanches’ source slopes in the southeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Adv Eng Sci 52(5):38–49. https://doi.org/10.15961/j.jsuese.202000207 (in Chinese)
Xu X, Wen X, Zheng R et al (2003) Pattern of latest tectonic motion and its dynamics for active blocks in Sichuan-Yunnan region, China. Sci China Ser D Earth Sci 46(2):210–226. https://doi.org/10.1360/03dz0017
Xu Q, Shang Y, van Asch T et al (2012) Observations from the large, rapid Yigong rock slide–debris avalanche, southeast Tibet. Can Geotech J 49(5):589–606. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-021
Xu L, Dai F, Tu X et al (2014) Landslides in a loess platform North-West China. Landslides 11(6):993–1005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-0,13-0445-x
Xu Q, Li YR, Zhang S, Dong XJ (2016a) Classification of large-scale landslides induced by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China. Environ Earth Sci 75:1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4773-0
Xu Q, Li Y, Zhang S et al (2016b) Classification of large-scale landslides induced by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China. Environ Earth Sci 75(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4773-0
Xu Q, Zheng G, Li W et al (2018) Study on successive landslide damming events of Jinsha River in Baige Village on October 11 and November 3, 2018. J Eng Geol 26(6):1534–1551 (in Chinese)
Zhang Y, Guo C, Li X et al (2021) Key problems on hydro-engineering-environmental geology along the Sichuan-Tibet Railway corridor: Current status and development direction. Hydrogel Eng Geol 48(5):1–12. https://doi.org/10.16030/j.cnki.issn.1000-3665.202104001 (in Chinese)
Zhijun N, Min W, Hanrong S et al (2005) Contemporary velocity field of crustal movement of Chinese mainland from Global Positioning System measurements. Chin Sci Bull 50(9):939–941. https://doi.org/10.1360/982005-220
Funding
This work was financially supported by the National Key Research and Development Project of China (Nos. 2018YFC1505001).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gong, Y., Yao, A., Li, Y. et al. Classification and distribution of large-scale high-position landslides in southeastern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China. Environ Earth Sci 81, 311 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10433-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10433-6