Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment of Morphological, Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Nutritional Profiles of Underexplored Citrus Pseudolimon (Galgal) Using Various Analytical Techniques

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Waste and Biomass Valorization Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Citrus pseudolimon (galgal), is an underutilized citrus fruit from the Rutaceae family with promising nutritional potential. The study compared morphological, chemical, and nutritional properties of galgal cultivars from Punjab (PBG), Haryana (HRG), and Himachal Pradesh (HPG). HPG was found to have a longer length (110.18 mm), weight (333.4 g), color (L*, a*, b*: 64.83, -13.12, 61.33), peel thickness (3.92 mm), fruit yield (72.14%), and number of seeds (18) compared to HRG and PBG. The moisture content of PBG (84.37%) was greater than HPG (82.73%) and HRG (81.23%). The total sugar level of HPG (9.25%) was found significantly low from PBG and HRG (~ 10%). All cultivars have enough fibres (~ 4%) and pectin (3–4%), with phenols, flavonoids, and ascorbic acid ranging from 67.6 to 77.09 mg GAE/g, 34.39–35.31 mg QE/g, and 68.28–70.45 mg/100 mL, respectively. Fruit seed oil contained palmitic (22.36 to 22.87%), oleic (27.77 to 29.25%), linoleic (31.43 to 32.14%), and linolenic (6.32 to 6.70%) acids and other minor fatty acids. All fruit varieties were antioxidant-rich. The predominant volatile elements in all cultivars were α-pinene, camphene, D-limonene, 3-carene, linalool, c-elemene, and caryophyllene. The GC-MS analysis of all cultivars revealed significant amounts of D-limonene and α-ocimene. Overall, excellent nutritional and functional components make galgal a very important food commodity to be utilized to formulate functional foods.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper.

References

  1. Suri, S., Singh, A., Nema, P.K.: Current applications of citrus fruit processing waste: A scientific outlook. Appl. Food Res. 2(1), 100050 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Wei, L., Yu, X., Li, H., Zhu, M., Pu, D., Lu, Q., Zu, Y.: Optimization of solvent-free microwave extraction of essential oil from the fresh peel of Citrus medica L. var. Arcodactylis Swingle by response surface methodology, chemical composition and activity characterization. Sci. Hortic. 309, 111663 (2023)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Grover, S., Aggarwal, P., Kumar, A., Kaur, S., Yadav, R., Babbar, N.: Utilizing citrus peel waste: A review of essential oil extraction, characterization, and foodindustry potential. Waste Biomass Valori. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05382-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Saini, R.K., Ranjit, A., Sharma, K., Prasad, P., Shang, X., Gowda, K.G.M., Keum, Y.S.: Bioactive compounds of citrus fruits: A review of composition and health benefits of carotenoids, flavonoids, limonoids, and terpenes. Antioxidants. 11(2), 239 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11020239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Wenhao, Z., Shi, Y., Xin, C.: The pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties of ubiquinone from citrus fruits: A comprehensive narrative review. Fitoterapia 2023: 105569. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FITOTE.2023.105569

  6. Zhu, M., HuangY, Wang, Y., Shi, T., Zhang, L., Chen, Y., Xie, M.: Comparison of (poly) phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of pomace extracts from Kiwi and grape juice. Food Chem. 271, 425–432 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2018.07.151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Ngo, B., Van Riper, J.M., Cantley, L.C., Yun, J.: Targeting cancer vulnerabilities with high-dose vitamin C. Nat. Rev. Cancer. 19(5), 271–282 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-019-0135-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Cabot, M.I., Lado, J., Clemente, G., Sanjuán, N.: Towards harmonised and regionalised life cycle assessment of fruits: A review on citrus fruit. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 33, 567–585 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.07.024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Lorrain, B., Ky, I., Pechamat, L., Teissedre, P.L.: Evolution of analysis of polyphenols from grapes, wines, and extracts. Molecules. 18(1), 1076–1100 (2013). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18011076madan

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Yang, Q.Q., Gan, R.Y., Ge, Y.Y., Zhang, D., Corke, H.: Polyphenols in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): Chemistry, analysis, and factors affecting composition. CRFSFS. 17(6), 1518–1539 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Kim, M., Kim, M., Lee, Y.J., Lee, S.P., Kim, T.S., Yang, H.J., Lee, J.H.: Effects of α-linolenic acid supplementation in perilla oil on collagen-epinephrine closure time, activated partial thromboplastin time and Lp-PLA2 activity in non-diabetic and hypercholesterolaemic subjects. J. Funct. Foods. 23, 95–104 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2016.02.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Kumar, V., Kaur, R., Aggarwal, P., Singh, G.: Underutilized citrus species: An insight of their nutraceutical potential and importance for the development of functional food. Sci. Hortic. 296, 110909 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCIENTA.2022.110909

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Thakur, N., Kumari, S.: Preliminary screening of phytochemicals and antimicrobial activity of Citrus Pseudolimon. Adv. Trad Med. 22, 425–435 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-021-00561-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Kassebi, S., Farkas, C., Székely, L., Géczy, A., Korzenszky, P.: Late Shelf-life saturation of golden delicious apple parameters: TSS, weight, and colorimetry. Appl. Sci. 13(1), 159 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Bouhenni, H., Doukani, K., Şekeroğlu, N., Gezici, S., Tabak, S.: Comparative study on chemical composition and antibacterial activity of fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum Graecum L.) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds. Ukr. Food J. 8(4), 755–767 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54084-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Madaan, R., Bansal, G., Kumar, S., Sharma, A.: Estimation of total phenols and flavonoids in extracts of Actaea spicata roots and antioxidant activity studies. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 73(6), 666–669 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Dinesh, B., Yadav, B., Reddy, R.D., Padma, A.S., Sukumaran, M.K.: Determination of ascorbic acid content in some Indian spices. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 4(8), 864–868 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  18. O’Fallon, J.V., Busboom, J.R., Nelson, M.L., Gaskins, C.T.A.: Direct method for fatty acid methyl ester synthesis: Application to wet meat tissues, oils, and feedstuffs. J. Anim. Sci. 85(6), 1511–1521 (2007). https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2006-491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Rani, A., Sharma, V., Arora, S., Lal, D., Kumar, A.: Rapid reversed-phase thin layer chromatographic protocol for detection of adulteration in ghee (clarified milk fat) with vegetable oils. J. Food Sci. Technol. 52, 2434–2439 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-013-1208-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Shi, T., Zhu, M., Zhou, X., Huo, X., Long, Y., Zeng, X., Chen, Y.: 1H NMR combined with PLS for the rapid determination of squalene and sterols in vegetable oils. Food Chem. 287, 46–54 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.072

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Grover, S., Aggarwal, P., Kaur, S., Yadav, R., Kumar, A.: Physicochemical assessment, characterization, antioxidant and antimicrobial potential study of essential oil extracted from the peel of different galgal (Citrus Pseudolimon) cultivars. Waste Biomass Valori. 1–11 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-023-02321-2

  22. Chen, Q., Wang, D., Tan, C., Hu, Y., Sundararajan, B., Zhou, Z.: Profiling of flavonoid and antioxidant activity of fruit tissues from 27 Chinese local citrus cultivars. Plants. 9(2), 196 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020196

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Lambani, N., Malik, S.K., Kaur, S., Choudhary, R., Rohini, M.R., Bhat, K.V., Chaudhury, R.: Physico-chemical diversity analysis in Lime [C. Aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle], Lemon (C. Limon Burm. f.) and Hill Lemon (C. Pseudolimon Tan.) Species collected from the foothills of Himalaya, India. Int. J. CurrMicrobiol Appl. Sci. 7, 3220–3227 (2018). https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.701.385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Singhal, S., Hulle, N.R.S.: Citrus pectins: Structural properties, extraction methods, modifications and applications in food systems–a review. Appl. Food Res. 2(2), 100215 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2022.100215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Lang, Y., Gao, N., Zang, Z., Meng, X., Lin, Y., Yang, S., Li, B.: Classification and antioxidant assays of polyphenols: A review. J. Future Foods. 4(3), 193–204 (2024)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Kovačević, D.B., Brdar, D., Fabečić, P., Barba, F.J., Lorenzo, J.M., Putnik, P.: Strategies to achieve a healthy and balanced diet: Fruits and vegetables as a natural source of bioactive compounds. In Agri-Food industry strategies for healthy diets and sustainability (pp. 51–88). Academic Press. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817226-1.00002-3

  27. Njus, D., Kelley, P.M., Tu, Y.J., Schlegel, H.B.: Ascorbic acid: The chemistry underlying its antioxidant properties. Free Radic Biol. Med. 159, 37–43 (2020)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Ali, A.A.H.: Overview of the vital roles of macro minerals in the human body. JTEMIN. 4, 100076 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemin.2023.100076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Kumar, A., Naik, S.N., Gandhi, K., Pandey, V.: Functional lipid components for obesity management: A review. Int. Food Res. J. 26(4), 1111–1122 (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Wang, B., Tian, G., Zhang, Q.: Vegetable oil or animal fat oil, which is more conducive to cardiovascular health among the elderly in China? Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 48(2), 101485 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2022.101485

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Bakrim, S., Benkhaira, N., Bourais, I., Benali, T., Lee, L.H., El Omari, N., Bouyahya, A.: Health benefits and pharmacological properties of stigmasterol. Antioxidants 11(10): 1912. (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11101912

  32. Khan, Z., Nath, N., Rauf, A., Emran, T.B., Mitra, S., Islam, F., Thiruvengadam, M.: Multifunctional roles and pharmacological potential of β-sitosterol: Emerging evidence toward clinical applications. Chem. Biol. Interact. 365, 110117 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Leonard, B.E., Aricioglu, F.: Cannabinoids and neuroinflammation: Therapeutic implications. J. Affect. Disord Rep. 12, 100463 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Ambrosio, C.M., Ikeda, N.Y., Miano, A.C., Saldaña, E., Moreno, A.M., Stashenko, E., Da Gloria, E.M.: Unravelling the selective antibacterial activity and chemical composition of citrus essential oils. Sci. Rep. 9(1), 17719 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54084-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Hashiesh, H.M., Meeran, M.N., Sharma, C., Sadek, B., Kaabi, J.A., Ojha, S.K.: Therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene: A dietary cannabinoid in diabetes and associated complications. Nutrients. 12(10), 2963 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102963

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Salehi, B., Upadhyay, S., Erdogan Orhan, I., Kumar Jugran, A., LD Jayaweera, S., Dias, A., Sharifi-Rad, D. J: Therapeutic potential of α-and β-pinene: A miracle gift of nature. Biomolecules. 9(11), 738 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9110738

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Weimer, P., Moura, J.G.L., Mossmann, V., Immig, M.L., de Castilhos, J., Rossi, R.C.: Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm) Swingle: Biological potential and safety profile of essential oils from leaves and fruit peels. Food Biosci. 40, 100905 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.100905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Weston-Green, K., Clunas, H., Jimenez Naranjo, C.A.: Review of the potential use of pinene and linalool as terpene-based medicines for brain health: Discovering novel therapeutics in the flavours and fragrances of cannabis. Front. Psychiatry. 12, 583211 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.583211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Nsuala, B.N., Kamatou, G.P., Sandasi, M., Enslin, G., Viljoen, A.: Variation in essential oil composition of Leonotisleonurus, an important medicinal plant in South Africa. BiochemSystEcol. 70, 155–161 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  40. Chhikara, N., Kour, R., Jaglan, S., Gupta, P., Gat, Y., Panghal, A.: Citrus medica: Nutritional, phytochemical composition and health benefits–a review. Food Funct. 9(4), 1978–1992 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2016.11.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Rekha, C., Poornima, G., Manasa, M., Abhipsa, V., Devi, J.P., Kumar, H.T.V., Kekuda, T.R.P.: Ascorbic acid, total phenol content and antioxidant activity of fresh juices of four ripe and unripe citrus fruits. Chem. Sci. Transact. 1(2), 303–310 (2012). https://doi.org/10.7598/cst2012.182

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to convey their heartfelt appreciation to the research facilities generously offered by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and Shoolini University, Solan, India.

Funding

No funding was obtained for this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, 141004, India

    Sumit Grover, Poonam Aggarwal & Sukhpreet Kaur

  2. Department of Food Science Technology and Processing, Amity University Punjab, Mohali, 140306, India

    Anil Kumar

  3. Food Testing Laboratory, Shoolini Lifesciences Pvt. Ltd, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173229, India

    Rahul Yadav

  4. College of Dairy Science & Technology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary & Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, 141004, India

    Sunil Kumar Khatkar

  5. Raj Khosla Centre for Cancer Research, Shoolini University of Biotechnology & Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

    Hailemeleak Regassa

Authors
  1. Sumit Grover
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Poonam Aggarwal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anil Kumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sukhpreet Kaur
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rahul Yadav
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sunil Kumar Khatkar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Hailemeleak Regassa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Sumit Grover: data curation, formal analysis, writing—original Draft. Poonam Aggarwal: project administration, methodology and conceptualization Anil Kumar: methodology, project administration, writing—reviewing and editing. Sukhpreet Kaur: data curation, and writing—reviewing and editing. Rahul Yadav: formal analysis and methodology. Sunil Kumar Khatkar: data curation, and writing—reviewing and editing. Hailemeleak Regassa: writing—reviewing and editing. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anil Kumar.

Ethics declarations

Competing Interest

The authors reported no declarations of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Grover, S., Aggarwal, P., Kumar, A. et al. Assessment of Morphological, Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Nutritional Profiles of Underexplored Citrus Pseudolimon (Galgal) Using Various Analytical Techniques. Waste Biomass Valor (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-024-02531-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-024-02531-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation