Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Structure and Evolution of Clay-Organic Nanocomposites in Three Leading Shales in China

  • Petroleum Geology
  • Published:
Journal of Earth Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Organic matter (OM) in shales occurs as nanometer-sized intercalations with clay minerals that are termed as clay-organic nanocomposites; however, the OM occurrence in nanocomposites at different stages of maturation is still unclear, and the co-evolution process of OM and clay under burial is not well understood. To reveal the variation of OM occurrence and clarify the relationship between petroleum generation of OM & transformation of clay minerals in nanocomposites as a function of maturity, this study investigates the structure and clay-OM association in 44 samples from three leading shales at different maturity stages from two basins in China. A total of 15 samples of lacustrine shale from upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, 15 samples of marine shale from Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation, and 14 samples of marine shale from Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation were analyzed based on organic geochemistry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and field emission-scan electron microscopy (FE-SEM), focused ion beam (FIB) sample preparation and consequent high resolution-transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) observations combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The results from this study show that most shale samples are organic-rich, and these three shales represent thermal evolutionary process from oil-window mature to overmature in a sequence of Triassic Yanchang, Silurian Longmaxi, and Cambrian Niutitang formations. Thorough observations indicate that sub-parallel bands of clays and intermingling of detrital minerals (such as quartz) dominate the nanocomposites in the Yanchang samples. While for Longmaxi and Niutitang shales, abundant nanopores and pyrite nanoparticles are observed in nanocomposites with features of layered distributions of OM and clay minerals. The structural investigation of nanocomposites shows that organic carbon between multi-layers dominates the OM occurrence in nanocomposites, which significantly extends the traditional opinion of OM-clay association. At an oil-window mature stage, the fluctuational interlayer spacing and a certain intensity of the carbon peak observed in the EDS spectra for corresponding clays provide a visual evidence of the organic molecules accessing the monolayer spaces of smectite. With the evolutional process of nanocomposites in shale and petroleum generation of OM & mineral transformation (illitization of smectite) running in parallel, it is inferred that the organic molecules migrate from monolayer spaces as gaseous hydrocarbons are generated, and eventually form stable clay-organic nanocomposites at an overmature stage. The results presented here will contribute to an improved understanding of diagenesis and organic-inorganic interactions in OM-rich shales.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References Cited

  • Aplin, A. C., Bishop, A. N., Clayton, C. J., et al., 1992. A Lamina-Scale Geochemical and Sedimentological Study of Sediments from the Peru Margin (Site 680, ODP Leg 112). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 64(1): 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1992.064.01.0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aplin, A. C., MacQuaker, J. H. S., 2011. Mudstone Diversity: Origin and Implications for Source, Seal, and Reservoir Properties in Petroleum Systems. AAPG Bulletin, 95(12): 2031–2059. https://doi.org/10.1306/03281110162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berthonneau, J., Grauby, O., Abuhaikal, M., et al., 2016. Evolution of Organo-Clay Composites with Respect to Thermal Maturity in Type II Organic-Rich Source Rocks. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 195: 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2016.09.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, H. L., Yuan, P., Liu, H., et al., 2017. Effects of Complexation between Organic Matter (OM) and Clay Mineral on OM Pyrolysis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 212: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2017.04.045

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, J. G., Bao, Y. J., Yang, S. Y., et al., 2007. Research on Preservation and Enrichment Mechanisms of Organic Matter in Muddy Sediment and Mudstone. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences, 50(5): 765–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-007-0005-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, J. G., Song, M. S., Lu, L. F., et al., 2013. Organo-Clay Complexes in Source Rocks—A Natural Material for Hydrocarbon Generation. Marine Geology & Quaternary Geology, 33(3): 123–131 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, J. G., Zhu, X. J., Zhang, J. Q., et al., 2020. Heterogeneities of Organic Matter and Its Occurrence Forms in Mudrocks: Evidence from Comparisons of Palynofacies. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 111: 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.08.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, H. Y., Zhu, C. Q., Qiu, N. S., 2015. Thermal Evolution of Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Eastern Sichuan Basin. Journal of Earth Sciences and Environment, 37(6): 22–32 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, G. J., Yen, M. C., Wang, J. M., et al., 2008. Layered Inorganic/Enzyme Nanohybrids with Selectivity and Structural Stability upon Interacting with Biomolecules. Bioconjugate Chemistry, 19(1): 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1021/bc700224q

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S. B., Zuo, Z. X., Zhu, Y. M., et al., 2015. Applicability of the Testing Method for the Maturity of Organic Matter in Shale Gas Reservoirs. Natural Gas Geoscience, 26(3): 564–574 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, M. E., Cardott, B. J., Sondergeld, C. H., et al., 2012. Development of Organic Porosity in the Woodford Shale with Increasing Thermal Maturity. International Journal of Coal Geology, 103: 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.08.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dai, J. X., Li, J., Luo, X., et al., 2005. Stable Carbon Isotope Compositions and Source Rock Geochemistry of the Giant Gas Accumulations in the Ordos Basin, China. Organic Geochemistry, 36(12): 1617–1635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.08.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day-Stirrat, R. J., Loucks, R. G., Milliken, K. L., et al., 2008. Phyllosilicate Orientation Demonstrates Early Timing of Compactional Stabilization in Calcite-Cemented Concretions in the Barnett Shale (Late Mississippian), Fort Worth Basin, Texas (USA). Sedimentary Geology, 208(1/2): 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2008.04.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, D. Z., Wang, Y. M., Li, X. J., et al. 2016. Breakthrough and Prospect of Shale Gas Exploration and Development in China. Natural Gas Industry, 36(1): 19–32 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Du, J. Z., Cai, J. G., Lei, T. Z., et al., 2021. Diversified Roles of Mineral Transformation in Controlling Hydrocarbon Generation Process, Mechanism, and Pattern. Geoscience Frontiers, 12(2): 725–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duan, Y., Wang, C. Y., Zheng, C. Y., et al., 2008. Geochemical Study of Crude Oils from the Xifeng Oilfield of the Ordos Basin, China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 31(4/5/6): 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.05.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, H. J., Yan, D. T., Yao, C. P., et al., 2022. Pore Structure and Multi-Scale Fractal Characteristics of Adsorbed Pores in Marine Shale: A Case Study of the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Shale in the Sichuan Basin, China. Journal of Earth Science, 33(5): 1278–1290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-021-1602-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, 2003. Determination of Total Organic Carbon in Sedimentary Rock: GB/T 19145-2003. Standard Press of China, Beijing (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gu, Y. T., Li, X. X., Wan, Q., et al., 2021a. On the Different Characteristics of Organic Pores in Shale and Their Influencing Factors: Taking Typical Marine, Continental and Transitional Facies Reservoirs in China as Examples. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 39(4): 794–810 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gu, Y. T., Li, X. X., Wan, Q., et al., 2021b. The Differential Evolution of Nanopores in Discrete OM and Organic-Clay Composites for Shale: Insights from Stress Manipulation. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 14(7): 554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-06918-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, H. J., Jia, W., Peng, P. A., et al., 2014. The Composition and Its Impact on the Methane Sorption of Lacustrine Shales from the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, Ordos Basin, China. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 57: 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.05.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hower, J., Eslinger, E. V., Hower, M. E., et al., 1976. Mechanism of Burial Metamorphism of Argillaceous Sediment: 1. Mineralogical and Chemical Evidence. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 87(5): 725–737. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87725:mobmoa>2.0.co;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia, W., Segal, E., Kornemandel, D., et al., 2002. Polyaniline-DBSA/Organophilic Clay Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Characterization. Synthetic Metals, 128(1): 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0379-6779(01)00672-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, Z., 2018. Pore Structure and Gas Bearing Property of Typical Marine and Continental Shale Reservoirs in China. Scientific Press, Beijing (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, Q., Zhu, C., Qiu, N., et al., 2015. Paleo-Heat Flow and Thermal Evolution of the Lower Cambrian Qiongzhusi Shale in the Southern Sichuan Basin, SW China. Natural Gas Geoscience, 26(8): 1563–1570 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelemen, S. R., Fang, H. L., 2001. Maturity Trends in Raman Spectra from Kerogen and Coal. Energy & Fuels, 15(3): 653–658. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef0002039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, M. J., Droser, M., Mayer, L. M., et al., 2006. Late Precambrian Oxygenation: Inception of the Clay Mineral Factory. Science, 311(5766): 1446–1449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, M. J., Löhr, S. C., Fraser, S. A., et al., 2014. Direct Evidence for Organic Carbon Preservation as Clay-Organic Nanocomposites in a Devonian Black Shale: From Deposition to Diagenesis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 388: 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.11.044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, M. J., Pevear, D. R., Hill, R. J., 2002. Mineral Surface Control of Organic Carbon in Black Shale. Science, 295: 657–660. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1066611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, M. J., Wagner, T., 2011. Clay Mineral Continental Amplifier for Marine Carbon Sequestration in a Greenhouse Ocean. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(24): 9776–9781. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1018670108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lagaly, G., 1989. Principles of Flow of Kaolin and Bentonite Dispersions. Applied Clay Science, 4(2): 105–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1317(89)90003-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanson, B., Sakharov, B. A., Claret, F., et al., 2009. Diagenetic Smectite-to-Illite Transition in Clay-Rich Sediments: a Reappraisal of X-Ray Diffraction Results Using the Multi-Specimen Method. American Journal of Science, 309(6): 476–516. https://doi.org/10.2475/06.2009.03

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S. Y., He, H. P., Tao, Q., et al., 2020. Kaolinization of 2: 1 Type Clay Minerals with Different Swelling Properties. American Mineralogist, 105(5): 687–696. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2020-7339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, A. Q., Tang, D. J., Shi, X. Y., et al., 2019. Growth Mechanisms and Environmental Implications of Carbonate Concretions from the ∼1.4 Ga Xiamaling Formation, North China. Journal of Palaeogeography, 8(1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42501-019-0036-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, D., Xiao, X., Tian, H., et al., 2012. Sample Maturation Calculated Using Raman Spectroscopic Parameters for Solid Organics: Methodology and Geological Applications. Chinse Science Bulletin, 58(11): 1285–1298 (in Chinese)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. G., Deng, B., Zhong, Y., et al., 2016. Unique Geological Features of Burial and Superimposition of the Lower Paleozoic Shale Gas across the Sichuan Basin and Its Periphery. Earth Science Frontiers, 23(1): 11–28 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Z. X., Xu, L. L., Wen, Y. R., et al., 2022. Accumulation Characteristics and Comprehensive Evaluation of Shale Gas in Cambrian Niutitang Formation, Hubei. Earth Science, 47(5): 1586–1603. https://doi.org/10.3799/dqkx.2021.214 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Loucks, R. G., Reed, R. M., Ruppel, S. C., et al., 2009. Morphology, Genesis, and Distribution of Nanometer-Scale Pores in Siliceous Mudstones of the Mississippian Barnett Shale. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 79(12): 848–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, L. F., Cai, J. G., Liu, W. H., et al., 2013. Occurrence and Thermostability of Absorbed Organic Matter on Clay Minerals in Mudstones and Muddy Sediments. Oil & Gas Geology, 34(1): 16–26 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Metwally, Y. M., Chesnokov, E. M., 2012. Clay Mineral Transformation as a Major Source for Authigenic Quartz in Thermo-Mature Gas Shale. Applied Clay Science, 55: 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2011.11.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meunier, A., Velde, B., 1989. Solid Solutions in I/S Mixed-Layer Minerals and Illite. American Mineralogist, 74(9/10): 1106–1112

    Google Scholar 

  • Milliken, K. L., Rudnicki, M., Awwiller, D. N., et al., 2013. Organic Matter-Hosted Pore System, Marcellus Formation (Devonian), Pennsylvania. AAPG Bulletin, 97(2): 177–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Energy Administration, 2010. Analysis Method for Clay Minerals and Ordinary Non-Clay Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks by the X-ray Diffraction: SY/T 5163-2010. Petroleum Industry Press, Beijing (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, N. R., 1971. Fabric of Kaolinite and Illite Floccules. Clays and Clay Minerals, 19(6): 353–359. https://doi.org/10.1346/ccmn.1971.0190603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, H. M., Kennedy, M., Löhr, S., et al., 2018. The Influence of Shale Depositional Fabric on the Kinetics of Hydrocarbon Generation through Control of Mineral Surface Contact Area on Clay Catalysis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 220: 429–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2017.10.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenherr, J., Littke, R., Urai, J. L., et al., 2007. Polyphase Thermal Evolution in the Infra-Cambrian Ara Group (South Oman Salt Basin) as Deduced by Maturity of Solid Reservoir Bitumen. Organic Geochemistry, 38(8): 1293–1318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2007.03.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, D. J., Tuo, J. C., Wang, Y. T., et al., 2019. Research Advances on Characteristics of Nanopore Structure of Organic-Rich Shales. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 37(6): 1309–1324 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sposito, G., Skipper, N. T., Sutton, R., et al., 1999. Surface Geochemistry of the Clay Minerals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96(7): 3358–3364. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.7.3358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Środoń, J., 2006. Chapter 12.2 Identification and Quantitative Analysis of Clay Minerals. Developments in Clay Science. In: Bergaya, F., Theng, B. K. G., Lagaly, G., eds., Developments in Clay Science. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 765–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1572-4352(05)01028-7

    Google Scholar 

  • Theng, B. K. G., Churchman, G. J., Newman, R. H., 1986. The Occurrence of Interlayer Clay-Organic Complexes in Two New Zealand Soils. Soil Science, 142(5): 262–266. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-198611000-00003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tosca, N. J., Johnston, D. T., Mushegian, A., et al., 2010. Clay Mineralogy, Organic Carbon Burial, and Redox Evolution in Proterozoic Oceans. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 74(5): 1579–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2009.12.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuschel, D., 2013. Raman Spectroscopy of Oil Shale. Spectroscopy, 28(3): 20–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, P. F., Jiang, Z., Chen, L., et al., 2016. Pore Structure Characterization for the Longmaxi and Niutitang Shales in the Upper Yangtze Platform, South China: Evidence from Focused Ion Beam-He Ion Microscopy, Nano-Computerized Tomography and Gas Adsorption Analysis. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 77: 1323–1337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.09.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X. Z., Gao, S. L., Gao, C., 2014. Geological Features of Mesozoic Lacustrine Shale Gas in South of Ordos Basin, NW China. Petroleum Exploration and Development, 41(3): 326–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1876-3804(14)60037-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. F., Zhai, G. Y., Liu, G. H., et al., 2021. Geological Characteristics of Shale Gas in Different Strata of Marine Facies in South China. Journal of Earth Science, 32(4): 725–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-020-1104-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z. M., Jiang, Y. Q., Fu, Y. H., et al., 2022. Characterization of Pore Structure and Heterogeneity of Shale Reservoir from Wufeng Formation-Sublayers Long-11 in Western Chongqing Based on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Earth Science, 47(2): 490–504. https://doi.org/10.3799/dqkx.2021.076 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, M., 2013. Studies on the Complexation and Stability of Clay Minerals and Organic Matter: [Dissertation]. Nanjing University, Nanjing (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H., Niu, X. B., Xu, L. M., et al., 2016. Exploration Potential of Shale Oil in Chang7 Member, Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, Ordos Basin, NW China. Petroleum Exploration and Development, 43(4): 560–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1876-3804(16)30066-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, Y., Lei, T. Z., Xing, L. T., et al., 2015. Oil Generation Abilities of Chemically Bound Organic Matter in Different Types of Organic Clay Complexes. Petroleum Geology & Experiment, 37(4): 487–493 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Yariv, S., Cross, H., 2002. Clay-Organic Complexes and Interaction. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, P., 2018. Unique Structure and Surface-Interface Reactivity of Nanostructured Minerals. Earth Science, 43(5): 1384–1407 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, J. H., Jin, Z. J., Jin, Z. K., et al., 2016. Lithofacies Types and Sedimentary Environment of Shale in Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation, Sichuan Basin. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 37(5): 572–586 (in Chinese with English Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, H. J., Ju, Y. W., Huang, C., et al., 2020. Microcosmic Gas Adsorption Mechanism on Clay-Organic Nanocomposites in a Marine Shale. Energy, 197: 117256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, X. J., Cai, J. G., Liu, W. X., et al., 2016. Occurrence of Stable and Mobile Organic Matter in the Clay-Sized Fraction of Shale: Significance for Petroleum Geology and Carbon Cycle. International Journal of Coal Geology, 160/161: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.03.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, X. J., Cai, J. G., Wang, G. L., et al., 2018. Role of Organo-Clay Composites in Hydrocarbon Generation of Shale. International Journal of Coal Geology, 192: 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.04.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41802143, 41690134, and 41821002), the Open Foundation of the State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry in China (No. 201904), and the Natural Science Foundation of Henan Province (No. 212300410129). We greatly thank three anonymous reviewers and the editors who provided valuable comments to improve the quality of this work. The final publication is available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1717-y.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Resources and Environment, Henan University of Engineering, Zhengzhou, 451191, China

    Yuantao Gu & Xiaoxia Li

  2. State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China

    Quan Wan, Tao Han & Shuguang Yang

  3. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

    Shuguang Yang

  4. Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Deep Oil and Gas, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, 266580, China

    Qinhong Hu

  5. University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 76019, USA

    Qinhong Hu

Authors
  1. Yuantao Gu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Quan Wan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xiaoxia Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tao Han
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Shuguang Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Qinhong Hu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Qinhong Hu.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gu, Y., Wan, Q., Li, X. et al. Structure and Evolution of Clay-Organic Nanocomposites in Three Leading Shales in China. J. Earth Sci. 34, 824–837 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1717-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1717-y

Key Words

Search

Navigation