Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Iron artefacts from the Akko Tower Wreck, Israel, and their contribution to the ship’s characterization

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Akko Tower Wreck was found inside Akko harbour, Israel, in 1966, next to the Tower of Flies, after which it was named. The shipwreck was excavated in 2012 and 2013. During the underwater excavations, two metal concretions were retrieved, X-rayed, and on opening were found to contain three almost identical iron-bound deadeyes. An iron bolt was also retrieved, covered with concretion. Metallurgical characterization was used to elucidate the manufacturing technology and to date the items. The artefacts were found to be made of annealed wrought iron. The use of wrought iron, forge-welding, and the presence of 0.1–0.2 wt.% Mn may indicate manufacturing in the mid-nineteenth century. Combined with the transition from hemp to chain cable for rigging in 1808, and by the 1840s to wire rope, all the indications are that the deadeyes were made in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. The size of the deadeyes, and the dimensions of their chain links, may indicate their use at the topmast of a brig of about 160 T. This agrees with other evidence in suggesting that the Akko Tower Wreck is the remains of a European vessel which sank in Akko harbour about the second quarter of the nineteenth century.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alderson RC (1843) Notes on Acre and some of the coast defences in Syria. Papers on Subjects Connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers. VI. John Weale, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RC (1952) Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853. University Press of Liverpool, Liverpool

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson A, Ashkenazi D, Barkai O, Kahanov Y (2013) Archaeometallurgical investigation of the iron anchor from the Tantura F shipwreck. Mater Charact 78:108–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashkenazi D, Mentovich E, Kahanov Y, Cvikel D, Barkai O, Aronson A (2012) Archaeometallurgical investigation of iron artifacts from shipwrecks: a review. In: Ollich-Castanyer I (ed) Archaeology, new approaches in theory and techniques. InTech, Rijeka, pp 169–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Barella S, Mapelli C, Nicodemi W (2008) A leap into the beginning of the metal age: recrystallization and carburizing. La Metall Italiana: 9–16

  • Beatson R (1804) Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to 1783. Volume 1, ed. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, London

  • Bénard J, Michel A, Philibert J, Talbot J (1984) Métallurgie Générale. Masson, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Biddlecombe G (1848) reprinted 1990. The Art of Rigging Containing an Explanation of Terms and Phrases, and the Progressive Method of Rigging Expressly Adapted for Sailing Ships. Charles Wilson, London/ Dover Publications, New York

  • Boudriot J (1986) The seventy-four gun ship. A practical treatise on the art of naval architecture. Volume I: hull construction. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis

  • Brady WN (1857) The kedge-anchor; or, Young Sailors’ Assistant. William N. Brady, New York

  • Brown S (1809) An essay on iron rigging and cables. E. Blackadder, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchwald VF, Wivel H (1998) Slag analysis as a method for the characterization and provenancing of ancient iron objects. Mater Charact 40(2):73–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallini M (2013) Thermodynamics applied to iron smelting techniques. Appl Phys A 113(4):1049–1053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen A (1973) Palestine in the 18th century: patterns of government and administration. Hebrew University Magnes Press, Jerusalem

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen M, Ashkenazi D, Kahanov Y, Stern A, Klein S, Cvikel D (2015) The brass nails of the Akko Tower Wreck (Israel): archaeometallurgical analyses. Metallorg Microstruct Anal 4(3):188–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coze JL (2000) Purification of iron and steels a continuous effort from 2000 BC to AD 2000. Mater Trans 41(1):219–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cvikel D, Ashkenazi D, Stern A, Kahanov Y (2013) Characterization of a 12-pdr wrought-iron cannonball from the Akko 1 shipwreck. Mater Charact 83:198–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cvikel D (2016) The Akko Tower Wreck, Israel: A summary of the first two excavation seasons. Int J Naut Archaeol

  • Dodds J, Moore M (1984) Building the wooden fighting ship. Chatham Publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Dothan M, Goldmann Z (1993) Tell Acco. In: Stern E (ed) New encyclopedia of archaeological excavations in the Holy Land. Israel Exploration Society, Carta, Jerusalem, pp 16–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer W (1780) reprinted 1970. An Universal Dictionary of the Marine. T. Cadell, London

  • Flinder A, Linder E, Hall ET (1992) Survey of the ancient harbour of Akko, 1964–1966. In: Heltzer M, Segal A, Kaufman D (eds) Studies in the archaeology and history of ancient Israel. Haifa University Press, Haifa, pp 199–225

    Google Scholar 

  • Fruehan RJ (2005) New steelmaking processes: drivers, requirements and potential impact. Ironmak Steelmak 32(1):3–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gale WKV (1973) The Bessemer steelmaking process. Trans Newcom Soc 46(1):17–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gimeno Adelantado JV, Ferrer Eres MA, Valle Algarra FM, Peris Vicente J, Bosch Reig F (2003) Analytical study by SEM/EDX and metallographic techniques of materials used in the iron production process during the Iberian period. Talanta 60(5):895–910

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goren H (2002) Sacred, but not surveyed: nineteenth-century surveys of Palestine. Imago Mundi 54:87–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Gouthama G, Balasubramaniam R (2003) Alloy design of ductile phosphoric iron: ideas from archaeometallurgy. Bull Mater Sci 26(5):483–491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges REM, Salter CJ (1979) Source determination of iron currency bars through analysis of the slag inclusions. Archaeometry 21(2):161–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jobling HJW (1993) The history and development of English anchors ca. 1550-to 1850 (Doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University).

  • Kemp P (1976) Oxford companion to ships and the sea. Oxford University Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • La Jonquière C (1900) L'Expédition d'Egypte, 1798–1801, IV. H. Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster JF (1987) The physics of fusion welding. Part 1: The electric arc in welding. Electric Power Applications, IEE Proceedings B, 134(5):233–254

  • Lees J (1862) Dana’s seamen’s friend: containing a treatise on practical seamanship. George Phillip and Son, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees J (2007) The masting and rigging of English ships of war 1625–1860. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch WF (1852) Official report of the United States expedition to explore the Dead Sea and the River Jordan. John Murphy, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch WF (1855) Narrative of the expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. James Blackwood, Paternoster Row, London

    Google Scholar 

  • MacGregor D (1988) Fast sailing ships, their design and construction, 1775–1875. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Makhouly N, Johns CN (1946) Guide to Acre. Government of Palestine, Department of Antiquities, Jerusalem

  • Manual of Seamanship (1917) His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, Vol. II

  • Mapelli C, Nicodemi W, Riva RF (2007) Microstructural investigation of a medieval sword produced in 12th Century AD. Stand Int J 47(7):1050–1057

    Google Scholar 

  • Marquardt KH (2003) Eighteenth-Century Rig and Rigging. Conway, London (reprint)

  • Martin JC (2014) Strands that stand: using wire rope to date and identify archaeological sites. Int J Naut Archaeol 43(1):151–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masters B (2009) Acre. In: Ágoston G, Masters B (eds) Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Facts on File, New York, pp 9–10

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy M (2005) Ships’ Fastenings From Sewn Boat to Steamship. Texas A&M University Press, College Station

  • Molyneux TH (1848) Expedition to the Jordan and the Dead Sea. J Roy Geog Soc London 18:104–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Mondfeld ZW (2005) Historic ship models. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York

    Google Scholar 

  • North N, Owens M, Pearson C (1976) Thermal stability of cast and wrought marine iron. Stud Conserv 21(4):192–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Perttula J (2004) Wootz Damascus steel of ancient orient. Scand J Metall 33(2):92–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raban A (1986) A shipwreck from Napoleon's siege of Akko (1799). In: Yedaya M (ed), Western Galilee Antiquities. Ministry of Defense, Tel Aviv, pp 195–208 (in Hebrew)

  • Rustum AJ (1926) Notes on Akka and its defences under Ibrahim Pasha. American University of Beirut, Beirut

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanders D (2010) Knowing the ropes: the need to record ropes and rigging on wreck-sites and some techniques for doing so. Int J Naut Archaeol 39(1):2–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott RB, Eekelers K, Degryse P (2016) Quantitative chemical analysis of archaeological slag material using handheld X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. App Spect 70(1):94–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shugar AN (2013) Portable X-ray fluorescence and archaeology: limitations of the instrument and suggested methods to achieve desired results. In: Armitage RA, Burton JH (eds) Archaeological chemistry VIII. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 173–193

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steel D (1794) The Elements and Practice of Rigging and Seamanship, D. Steel, London

  • Steffy JR (1983) The Napoleonic wreck: A workshop in ship construction (Unpublished report)

  • Stern A, Ashkenazi D, Cvikel D, Rosen B, Galili E (2015) Archeometallurgical and technical characterization of 7th century AD iron fishing-spear and fire basket found in the Dor lagoon, Israel. J Archaeol Sci Rep 3:132–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner CE (2012) The early nineteenth-century chain testing machines. Int J Hist Eng Tech 82(2):233–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tylecote RF (1992) A history of metallurgy, 2nd edn. The Metals Society, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Underhill AH (1949) Masting and rigging the clipper ship and ocean carrier: with authentic plans, working drawings and details of the nineteenth and twentieth century sailing ship. Brown Son and Ferguson Ltd, Glasgow

    Google Scholar 

  • Ure A (1840) A dictionary of arts, manufactures, and mines, 2nd edn. Spottiswoode, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth J, Lesuer DR (2000) Ancient and modern laminated composites—from the Great Pyramid of Gizeh to Y2K. Mater Charact 45(4–5):289–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wayman ML (2000) Archaeometallurgical contributions to a better understanding of the past. Mater Charact 45(4):259–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiltzen TS, Wayman ML (1999) Steel files as chronological markers in North American fur trade sites. Archaeometry 41(1):117–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The underwater excavations and research of the Akko Tower Wreck are supported by the Israel Science Foundation (Grant No. 447/12), the Honor Frost Foundation, D. Shafir, a Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship, the Rector and the Research Authority, University of Haifa, to whom the authors are grateful.

The authors would like to thank A. Gienko and I. Rosenthal of the Department of Materials Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and Y. Shoef, Gabi Shoef Ltd, for their Radiographic (RT) assistance; R. Malmazada and H. Kravitz, Microtech Ltd (Israel), for their XRF assistance; S. Tuvia for cutting and machining the deadeye; D. Sanders for his advice on rigging systems; Z. Barkay, Wolfson Applied Materials Research Center, Tel Aviv University, for her SEM assistance; J. B. Tresman for the English editing; and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 3498838, Israel

    M. Cohen, Y. Kahanov & D. Cvikel

  2. School of Mechanical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801, Israel

    D. Ashkenazi

  3. Department of Materials Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 8410501, Israel

    A. Stern

Authors
  1. M. Cohen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. D. Ashkenazi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. Stern
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Y. Kahanov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. D. Cvikel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to D. Ashkenazi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cohen, M., Ashkenazi, D., Stern, A. et al. Iron artefacts from the Akko Tower Wreck, Israel, and their contribution to the ship’s characterization. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 9, 1243–1257 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0320-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0320-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation