Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Tracing the trade-offs at the energy-water-environment nexus in drought-prone urbanising regions

  • ICWEES2018 & IWFC2018
  • Published:
Arabian Journal of Geosciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Strategies for managing water stress negotiate a complex series of trade-offs and opportunities. Game-changing opportunities for water stressed regions are emerging with new emissions reduction strategies and energy options. These have particular significance for socio-economic development pathways in the marginal drought-prone regions. In this paper, we explore the energy-water-environment nexus in watersheds undergoing acute water stress and energy transitions in the Arab region and the Horn of Africa. A review of published and ongoing scientific activity was used to elaborate four case studies and identify common trade-offs between objectives to reduce water stress, increase productivity and lower energy costs and emissions. The available scientific evidence base for assessment of these trade-offs was then compared via a discursive process amongst review team members. Collectively, the case studies present a state of the art in available geoscientific methods currently applied in the Arab region to quantify nexus trade-offs for decision-making concerning increasing groundwater use, water harvesting and wastewater reuse across the case studies. The review pursues the wider geographic relevance and scope of this emerging scientific agenda. It identifies global opportunities to boost and progressively enhance the geoscientific information bases for decision-making in the most water stressed regions, as well as direct comparisons with emerging discussion in the Horn of Africa region. Insights for sustainable development decision-makers are highlighted and further scope for the transfer of insights within and beyond the Arab region are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. See also: https://www.water-energy-food.org/resources/resources-detail/nexus-country-profiles-for-the-niger-basin/

  2. See: http://sddr.faoswalim.org/River_atlas/atlas/River_Atlas_Som_Part1_drainage.pdf

  3. Renewable Energy Law (Decree No 203/2014) see: http://egyptera.org/Downloads/Laws/law2014.pdf

  4. See: https://www.iea.org/Sankey/#?c=World&s=Balance

References

  • Abdeladhim MA, Sghaier M, Fleskens L, Ouessar M (2017) An integrated cost–benefit and livelihood approach for assessing the impact of water harvesting techniques (WHTs) on livelihoods: a case study in the Oum Zessar Watershed, South-East Tunisia. In: Ouessar M, Gabriels D, Tsunekawa A, Evett S, Editors (eds) Water and land security in drylands - response to climate change. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 303-316

  • Abdelli F, Ouessar M, M’Hemdi S, Guied M, Khatteli H (2017) Monitoring soil moisture content of jessour in the watershed of Wadi Jir (Matmata, Southeast Tunisia). In: Ouessar M, Gabriels D, Tsunekawa A, Evett S, Editors (eds) Water and land security in drylands–response to climate change. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 97-110

  • AbouKheira AAE-AAS (1999) The possibility of using solar energy in driving irrigation pumps. Minufiya University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt

  • Adham A, Riksen M, Ouessar M, Ritsema C (2016a) Identification of suitable sites for rainwater harvesting structures in arid and semi-arid regions: a review international soil and water conservation research 4:108-120

  • Adham A, Wesseling JG, Riksen M, Ouessar M, Ritsema CJ (2016b) A water harvesting model for optimizing rainwater harvesting in the wadi Oum Zessar watershed. Tunisia. Agric Water Manag 176:191–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed FE, Hashaikeh R, Hilal N (2019) Solar powered desalination – technology, energy and future outlook. Desalination:54-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.12.002

  • Amer K, Adeel Z, Böer B, Saleh W (eds) (2017) The water, energy, and food security nexus in the Arab Region. Springer

  • Attia F, Fahmi H, Gambarelli J, Hoevenaars R, Slootweg R, AbdelDayem S (2005) WDWCIARP drainframe analysis, main report. Unpublished.

  • Badiuzzaman P, McLaughlin E, McCauley D (2017) Substituting freshwater: can ocean desalination and water recycling capacities substitute for groundwater depletion in California? J Environ Manag 203:123–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.06.051

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basnyat DB, Gadain HM (2009) Hydraulic behaviour of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers: basic analysis for irrigation and flood management purposes. FAOSWALIM (GCP/SOM/047/EC), Nairobi, Kenya

  • BWE (2015) Water supply and wastewater systems master plan for the Bekaa water establishment.

  • Carpenter SR, Pingali PL, Bennett EM, Zurek MB (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: scenarios vol 2. Island Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherlet M, Hutchinson C, Reynolds J, Hill J, Sommer S, von Maltitz G (eds) (2018) World Atlas of desertification. Publication Office of the European Union, JRC, Luxembourg

  • Croitoru L, Sarraf M, Ghariani F, Matoussi MS, Daly-Hassen H (2010) Water degradation: the case of Tunisia. In: Croitoru L, Sarraf M (eds) The cost of environmental degradation: case studies from the Middle East and North Africa (English). Vol directions in development; environment. World Bank, Washington, DC: pp 11-36

  • Daher BT, Mohtar RH (2015) Water–energy–food (WEF) nexus tool 2.0: guiding integrative resource planning and decision-making. Water Int 40:748–771. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2015.1074148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • desalination.biz (2018) KfW finances €82 million Tunisian desalination project.

  • EEAA (2016) Egypt Third National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), Cairo, Egypt

  • El Gafy I, Grigg N, Reagan W (2017a) Dynamic behaviour of the water–food–energy nexus: focus on crop production and consumption. Irrig Drain 66:19–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • El Gafy I, Grigg N, Reagan W (2017b) Water-food-energy nexus index to maximize the economic water and energy productivity in an optimal cropping pattern. Water Int 42:495–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • El-Agha DE, Closas A, Molle F (2016) Below the radar: the boom of groundwater use in the central part of the Nile Delta in Egypt. Hydrogeology 25:1621–1631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1570-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endo A, Tsurita I, Burnett K, Orenciod PM (2017) A review of the current state of research on the water, energy, and food nexus. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11:20–30

    Google Scholar 

  • ESCWA (2009) ESCWA water development report 3: role of desalination in addressing water scarcity. United Nations http://bit.ly/2FuCq97

  • ESCWA (2016) Developing the capacity of ESCWA member countries to address the water and energy nexus for achieving sustainable development goals. ESCWA, Beirut

  • Fraenkel PL (1986) Water lifting. Rome. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy

  • GIBB (2004) The Merti Aquifer Study. GIBB Africa Ltd. UNICEF Kenya Country Office

  • Gies L, Agusdinata DB, Merwade V (2014) Drought adaptation policy development and assessment in East Africa using hydrologic and system dynamics modeling. Nat Hazards 74:789–813

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano M, Villholth K (eds) (2007) The agricultural groundwater revolution: opportunities and threats to development. Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series 3. CABI, Wallingford, UK

  • GoK (2012) Master plan for conservation and sustainable management of water catchment areas in Kenya. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of Kenya

  • GoK (2014) Republic of Kenya Project on capacity development for effective flood management in flood Prone Area Isiolo River basin integrated flood management plan. Japan International Cooperation Agency, NEWJEC Inc. - Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources - Water Resources Management Authority

  • GoK (2018) Isiolo County integrated development plan, CIDP 2018-2022. Isiolo County Government, Nairobi, Kenya

  • Hadded R, Nouiri I, Alshihabi O, Maßmann J, Huber M, Laghouane A, Yahiaoui H, Tarhouni J (2013) A decision support system to manage the groundwater of the Zeuss Koutine aquifer using the WEAP-MODFLOW framework. Water Resour Manag 27:1981–2000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harou J, King-Okumu C, Orindi V (2017) Mitigating and adapting to ‘arid’ climate extremes: locally prioritized ecosystem-based adaptations at the water-energy nexus (PPT). Paper presented at the Symposium Droughts Resilience and Climate Change in Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 7th–9th November 2017, Nairobi

  • Hoff H (2011) Understanding the nexus. Background paper for the Bonn 2011 conference: the water, energy and food security nexus. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm

  • Hoff H, Al-Zubari W, Mansour L, Abaza H, Biad M, Al Ouran N, Ulrich A (2017) Mainstreaming the water-energy-food security nexus into policies and institutions in the MENA Region: Nexus Evidence Base. GIZ, GFA

  • IEA (2016) Water energy nexus. In: The world energy outlook 2016. International Energy Agency (IEA) Paris: OECD/IEA, p 63

  • IFAD (2016) SAIL supervision report 2016 Supervision report. IFAD, Rome

  • IPCC (2018) Global warming of 1.5 °C - summary for policymakers intergovernmental panel on climate change

  • IUCN (2015) Nexus trade-offs and strategies for addressing the water, agriculture and energy security nexus in Africa IWA/IUCN/ICA

  • Jaafar HH (2017) Water resources within the orontes and litani basins - water balance, demand and supply analysis IIED, London

  • Jaafar HH, Ahmad FA (2019 in press) Time series trends of Landsat-based ET using automated calibration in METRIC and SEBAL: The Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. Remote Sens Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.12.033

  • Jaafar HH, Woertz E (2016) Agriculture as a funding source of ISIS: a GIS and remote sensing analysis. Food Policy 64:14–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaafar HH, Zurayk R, King C, Ahmad F, Al-Outa R (2015) Impact of the Syrian conflict on irrigated agriculture in the Orontes Basin. International Journal of Water Resources Development 31:436–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaafar H, King-Okumu C, Haj-Hassan M, Abdallah C, El-Korek N, Ahmad F (2016) Water resources within the Upper Orontes and Litani Basins: a balance, demand and supply analysis amid the Syrian refugees crisis. IIED, London

  • Jarray H, Zammouri M, Ouessar M, Zerrim A, Yahyaoui H (2017) GIS based DRASTIC model for groundwater vulnerability assessment: case study of the shallow mio-plio-quaternary aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia). Water Res 44:595–603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarso I, Tari D, King-Okumu C (2017) Recommendations to the county government of Isiolo for preparation of a strategic plan on water, energy and climate change. IIED, London

  • Jillo B et al. (2016) Cracking the climate-water-energy challenge in the drylands of Kenya. IIED, London

  • Jomaa I, SS M, J R (2015) Sharp expansion of extensive groundwater irrigation, semi-arid environment at the northern Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. Natural Resources 6:381–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaur S, Aggarwal R, Lal R (2016) Assessment and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from groundwater irrigation. Irrig Drain 65:762–770

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King C, Jaafar H (2015) Rapid Assessment of the Water-Energy-Food-Climate Nexus in 6 Selected Basins of North Africa and West Asia undergoing Transitions and Scarcity Threats. International Journal of Water Resources Development 31:343–359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King C, Salem B (2012) A socio-ecological investigation of options to manage groundwater degradation in the western desert, Egypt. Ambio 41:490–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King C, Salem B (2013) Assessing the cost of groundwater degradation in the urbanizing desert area of Wadi El Natrun. In: The Economy of Green Cities. Springer, pp 295-311

  • King-Okumu C, Jillo B, Kinyanjui J, Jarso I (2017) Devolving water governance in the Kenyan Arid Lands: from top-down drought and flood emergency response to locally driven water resource development planning. International Journal of Water Resources Development

  • King-Okumu C, Harou J, Orindi V (2018) Mitigating and adapting to ‘arid’ climate extremes: Locally prioritized ecosystem-based adaptations at the water-energy nexus. In: Leal W (ed) Handbook of Climate Change Resilience Springer, Nairobi

  • KNBS (2018) Environmental economic accounts: energy accounts. In: Statistics KNBo (ed) economic survey, 2018. Nairobi, pp 282

  • Michael A, Khepar S, Sondhi S (2008) Water wells & pumps. Tata McGraw-Hill Education: McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd.

  • Michalscheck M, Petersen G, Gadain H (2016) Impacts of rising water demands in the Juba and Shabelle river basins on water availability in south Somalia. Hydrol Sci J 61:1877–1889

    Google Scholar 

  • MoE (2016) Egypt’s third national communication to the UNFCCC. Ministry of Environment, Egypt, Cairo

  • MoE/UNDP/GEF (2015) National greenhouse gas inventory report and mitigation analysis for the agriculture sector in Lebanon. Beirut, Lebanon

  • MoE/UNDP/GEF (2016) Lebanon’s third national communication to the UNFCCC. Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon, Beirut

  • MoE/UNDP/GEF (2017) Lebanon’s second biennial update report to the UNFCCC. Ministry of Environment, Beirut, Lebanon

  • MoE-EU-UNDP (2014) Lebanon environmental assessment of the Syrian conflict and priority interventions

  • MoEW/UNDP (2014) Assessment of groundwater resources of Lebanon. MoEW/UNDP, Beirut

  • Molle F, Gaafar I, El-Agha DE, Rap E (2016) Irrigation efficiency and the Nile delta water balance - technical report December 2016. IWMI, Cairo

  • Molle F, Gaafar I, El-Agha DE, Rap E (2018) The Nile delta’s water and salt balances and implications for management. Agric Water Manag 197:110–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutiga JK, Mavengano ST, Zhongbo S, Woldai T, Becht R (2010) water allocation as a planning tool to minimise water use conflicts in the Upper Ewaso Ng’iro North Basin, Kenya. Water Resour Manag 24:3939–3959

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MWRI (2010) Draft strategy for water resource management until 2050 (in Arabic). MWRI, Cairo

  • Ndirangu W (2017) Catalysing low cost green technologies for sustainable water service delivery in Kenya - Feasibility Study Report. CTCN, UNEP DTU & WSTF, Nairobi

  • Nelson G, Robertson R (2008) Personal communication. Planning Commission (India) Government of India, New Delhi

  • Nelson G, Robertson R, Msangi S, Zhu T, Liao X, Jawajar P (2009) Greenhouse gas mitigation. Issues for Indian agriculture. International Food Policy Research Institute, Environment and Production Technology Division, Washington, DC

  • OECD/IEA (2017) Energy access outlook. OECD International Energy Agency Paris

  • Oord A, Collenteur R, Tolk L (2014) Hydrogeological assessment of the Merti Aquifer, Kenya

  • Ouessar M, Sghaier M, Mahdhi N, Abdelli F, de Graaff J, Chaieb H, Yahyaoui H, Gabriels D (2004) An integrated approach for impact assessment of water harvesting techniques in dry areas: the case of Oued Oum Zessar Watershed (Tunisia). Environ Monit Assess 99:127–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ouessar M, Bruggeman A, Abdelli F, Mohtar RH, Gabriels D, Cornelis WM (2009) Modelling water-harvesting systems in the arid south of Tunisia using SWAT. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 13:2003–2021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saadé-Sbeih M, Haj Asaad A, Shamali O, Zwahlen F, Jaubert R (2018) Groundwater balance politics: aquifer overexploitation in the Orontes River. Basin Water Alternatives 11:663–683

    Google Scholar 

  • Salem B (2014) Omayed Biosphere Reserve, Egypt. In: Schaaf T, Cardenas MR, Lee C (eds) Innovative ways for sustainable use of drylands - final report of the SUMAMAD project. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, pp 60-79

  • Salim MG (2012) Selection of groundwater sites in Egypt, using geographic information systems, for desalination by solar energy in order to reduce greenhouse gases. J Adv Res 3:11–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah T (2009) Climate change and groundwater: India’s opportunities for mitigation and adaptation. Environ Res Lett 4:035005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah T, Durga N, Rai GP, Verma S, Rathod R (2017) Promoting solar power as a remunerave crop. Econ Polit Wkly 52:14–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Shouman ER, El Shenawy ET, Badr MA (2016) Economics analysis of diesel and solar water pumping with case study water pumping for irrigation in Egypt. Int J Appl Eng Res 11:950–954

    Google Scholar 

  • Swiderska K, King-Okumu C, Islam MM (2018) Ecosystem-based adaptation: a handbook for eba in mountain, dryland and coastal ecosystems. IIED, London

  • UN E, Fao I (2014) System of environmental-economic accounting 2012: central framework

  • UNWater (2018) Sustainable development goal 6 synthesis report on water and sanitation draft – 2nd May 2018 United Nations, New York

  • Velis M, Conti KI, Biermann F (2017) Groundwater and human development: synergies and trade-offs within the context of the sustainable development goals. Sustain Sci 12:1007–1017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verma S, Durga N, Shah T (2018) Solar irrigaon pumps and India’s energy-irrigaon nexus IWMI-TATA water policy research highlight-02:6

  • Villholth KG, Lopez-Gunn E, Conti K, Garrido A, Gun JVD (eds) (2017) Advances in groundwater governance. 1st Edition. CRC Press

  • Wakeford JJ (2017) The water–energy–food nexus in a climate-vulnerable, frontier economy: the case of Kenya - report prepared for the United Kingdom Department for International Development.

  • WOCAT (2013) Water harvesting – guidelines to good practice. CDE, Berne

  • Woldemariyam F, Ayenew T (2016a) Application of hydrochemical and isotopic techniques to understand groundwater recharge and flow systems in the Dawa River basin, southern Ethiopia. Environ Earth Sci 75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5777-0

  • Woldemariyam F, Ayenew T (2016b) Identification of hydrogeochemical processes in groundwater of Dawa River basin, southern Ethiopia. Environ Monit Assess 188:481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5480-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WRMA (2013a) Final report - surface and groundwater assessment and planning in respect to the Isiolo County Mid Term ASAL Program study volume 1 main report. Earth Water Ltd

  • WRMA (2013b) Part G: Ewaso Ng’iro North catchment area. In: National water master plan 2030. Nairobi, p 112

  • WRMA (2014) Ewaso Ng’iro North catchment area (ENNCA) catchment management strategy 2015-2022. Water Resources Management Authority, Republic of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya

  • WRMA (2016a) Surface water and groundwater resources assessment in Wajir County for decision making: final report. Geekan Kenya Ltd for the Kenyan Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA), Nairobi

  • WRMA (2016b) Water Resources Assessment for Decision Making in Garissa County FINAL REPORT JUNE 2016. MTAP, Nairobi

  • WWDR (2014) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2014: Water and Energy Volume 1. World Water Development Report, UNESCO, UNWater, Paris

  • Yang J, Yang YCE, Khan HF, Xie H, Ringler C, Ogilvie A, Seidou O, Djibo AG, van Weert F, Tharme R (2018) Quantifying the sustainability of water availability for the water-food-energy-ecosystem nexus in the Niger River. Basin. Earth’s Future 6:1292–1310. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EF000923

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Mohamed Ouessar and the organisers of the international Conference on Water, Environment, Energy and Society for supporting the preparation of this article. We also wish to thank several anonymous reviewers, who provided helpful and constructive reviews. Research on the three Arabian cases by the National Agricultural and Extension Systems was partially supported by USAID through ICARDA’s Water and Livelihoods Initiative. The Sub-Saharan African case study drew on studies that were partially funded by DfID. Backgrounds of figures in the online supplementary material were derived from a base map available from Esri http://goto.arcgisonline.com/maps/World_Topo_Map).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. GeoData Institute, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

    Caroline King-Okumu

  2. The Borders Institute (TBI), Nairobi, Kenya

    Caroline King-Okumu

  3. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK

    Caroline King-Okumu

  4. American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon

    Hadi Jaafar

  5. Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI), National Water Research Center (NWRC), Cairo, Egypt

    Abdrabbo A. A. Shehata Aboukheira

  6. Institut des Regions Arides, North Tunisia, Tunisia

    Mongi Benzaied

  7. Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

    Joy Obando

  8. Chemical-Process Engineering Department, National Engineering School (ENIG), University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia

    Ahmed Hannachi

Authors
  1. Caroline King-Okumu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hadi Jaafar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Abdrabbo A. A. Shehata Aboukheira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mongi Benzaied
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Joy Obando
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ahmed Hannachi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Caroline King-Okumu.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Geo-environmental integration for sustainable development of water, energy, environment and society

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(EMF 1056 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

King-Okumu, C., Jaafar, H., Shehata Aboukheira, A.A.A. et al. Tracing the trade-offs at the energy-water-environment nexus in drought-prone urbanising regions. Arab J Geosci 12, 639 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4730-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4730-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation