Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Detection of Oil Adulteration in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) Utilizing Chemometrics and Principal Component Analysis

  • Research
  • Published:
Food Analytical Methods Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Authentication of virgin coconut oil (VCO) is imperative to protect the interests of the consumers. An investigation was carried out to distinguish VCO from coconut oil (CO), palm oil (PO) and liquid paraffin utilizing biochemical quality parameters, including fatty acid composition, and principal component analysis (PCA). Various oil blends of VCO: PO, VCO: CO (both in 10% increments), VCO:CO:PO and VCO: liquid paraffin and CO: liquid paraffin were prepared. The oil blends were analyzed for quality features, fatty acid composition and the data was analyzed statistically. Biochemical attributes such as total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), iodine value (IV) and saponification value (SV) and fatty acids like lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid and oleic acid were influential parameters to distinguish the oil samples at various levels of adulteration. Samples could be classified even with the adulteration level of as low as 10%. Principal component analysis produced two components distinguishing various adulterated oil samples. Multiple regression analysis provided predictive equation models with high coefficient of determination (R2) and could help in adulteration quantitation. Hence, this study demonstrated the efficacy of chemometrics approach in distinguishing VCO from possible adulterants like PO, CO and liquid paraffin.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

All the data described in this research work is available within this manuscript.

References

  • Agarwal RK, Bosco SJD (2017) Extraction processes of virgin coconut oil. MOJFPT 4(2):1–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AjogunCO ASC, Kiin-Kabari DB, Akusu OM (2020) Effect of Extraction Methods on the Physicochemical Properties, Fatty Acid Profile and Storage Stability of Virgin Coconut Oil. Asian Food Sci J 18(4):27–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (2020) https://www.coconutboard.in/ accessed on 21/10/2020, 3:00 pm

  • Anonymous, amended (2009) Asian and Pacific Coconut Community standard for virgin coconut oil. (https://www.academia.edu/31872585/VIRGIN_COCONUT_OIL_Asian_and_Pacific_Coconut_Community). Accessed on 05/06/2022

  • Anonymous, amended (1999) Alimentarius, Codex. “Codex standard for named vegetable oils”. Codex Stan 210:1–13.

  • Bharti ID, Solanki RL, Meena BS (2017) A Comparative Impact Study of Edible Oils on Health. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6(11):601–612

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dia VP, Garcia VV, Mabesa RC, Tecson-Mendoza EM (2005) Comparative physicochemical characteristics of virgin coconut oil produced by different methods. Philipp Agric Sci 88(4):462–475

    Google Scholar 

  • Haryati T, Che Man YB, Ghazali HM, Asbi BA, Buana L (1998) Determination of iodine value of palm oil based on triglyceride composition. J Am Oil Chem Soc 75(7):789–792

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • https://coconutboard.gov.in/Statistics.aspx/Coconut development board, accessed on 16/09/2022 at 3:00 pm.

  • https://www.statista.com/statistics/875977/organic-virgin-coconut/Statista, accessed on 20/12/2021 at 12:00 noon

  • Jayatunga HGTH, Somasiri HPPS, Mahanama KRR (2020) Rapid determination of adulteration in virgin and copra coconut oil using Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy. Int J Food Sci Nutr 5(3):38–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Koh SP, Long K (2012) Oxidative stability study of virgin coconut oil during deep frying. J Trop Agric Fd Sc 40(1):35–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Koushki M, Nahidi M, Cheraghali F (2015) Physico-chemical properties, fatty acid profile and nutrition in palm oil. Arch Adv Biosci 6(3):117–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishna AG, Raj G, Ajit SB, Kumar PK, Chandrashekar P (2010) Coconut Oil: Chemistry, production and its applications. Indian Coconut J 53(3):15–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar N (2007) Capillary gas chromatography method for fatty acid analysis of coconut oil. J Plant Crops 35(1):23–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau S, Everitt BS (2003) A handbook of statistical analyses using SPSS. Chapman and Hall/CRC.Pp 366, New York. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203009765

  • Lechhab T, Lechhab W, Trovato E, Salmoun F, Mondello L, Cacciola F (2022) Impact of edaphoclimatic conditions and crop season on olive oil’s fatty acids. Agronomy J 114:3118–3128

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lechhab T, Lechhab W, Trovato E, Salmoun F, Mondello L, Cacciola F (2022) Screening of the Volatile Composition of Moroccan Olive Oils by Using SPME/GC-MS-FID over a Two-Year Period: A Pedoclimatic Discrimination. Horticulture 8:925

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Libish TM, Linesh J, Bobby MC, Biswas P, Bandyopadhyay S, Dasgupta K, Radhakrishnan P (2011) Detection and analysis of paraffin oil adulteration in coconut oil using fiber optic long period grating sensor. Optik 122(21):1939–1942

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Man YBC, Manaf MA (2006) Medium-chain triacylglycerols. CRC Press, In Nutraceutical and specialty lipids and their co-products, pp 27–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Manaf MA, Man YBC, Hamid NSA, Ismail A, Abidin SZ (2007) Analysis of adulteration of virgin coconut oil by palm kernel olein using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. J Food Lipids 14(2):111–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manikantan MR, Mathew AC, Madhavan K, Arumuganathan T, Arivalagan M, Shameena PP, Hebbar KB (2016) Virgin coconut oil hot and fermentation process. Technical bulletin no. 108, Centenary Publication 43, ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, AICRP on PHET, Kasaragod 1–36

  • Marikkar JMN (2019) Differential Scanning Calorimetric Analysis of Virgin Coconut Oil, Palm Olein, and their Adulterated Blends. CORD 35(01):9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marikkar JMN, Yanty NAM (2018) Principal component analysis of fatty acid data to detect virgin coconut oil adulteration by palm olein. CORD 34(1):30–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Marina AM, Man YBC, Nazimah SAH, Amin I (2009) Monitoring the adulteration of virgin coconut oil by selected vegetable oils using differential scanning calorimetry. J Food Lipids 16(1):50–61

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevin KG, Rajamohan T (2006) Virgin coconut oil supplemented diet increased the antioxidant status in rats. Food Chem 99:260–266

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pandurangan MK, Murugesan S, Gajivaradhan SN (2017) Detection of adulteration of coconut oil using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. Mater Sci 2(6):46–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh SV, Krishnan V, Praveen S, Hebbar KB (2021) Dietary prospects of coconut oil for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD): a review of recent evidences. Trends Food Sci Technol 112:201–211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh SV, Mary R, Beegum S, Pandiselvam R, Sugatha P, Neenu S, Shil S, Niral V, Manikantan MR, Lokesha AN, Shivashankara KS, Hebbar KB (2022) Physicochemical characterization and fatty acid profiles of testa oils from various coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) genotypes. J Sci Food Agric 103(1):370–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.12150

  • Ramesh SV, Krishnan V, Praveen S, Hebbar KB (2019) Coconut oil–scientific facts. Curr Sci 117(4):564–565

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh SV, Pandiselvam R, Thushara R, Manikantan MR, Hebbar KB, Beegum S, Mathew AC, Neenu S, Shil S (2020) Engineering intervention for production of virgin coconut oil by hot process and multivariate analysis of quality attributes of virgin coconut oil extracted by various methods. J Food Process Eng 43(6):1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohman A, Man YBC, Ali YMD (2019) The authentication of virgin coconut oil from grape seed oil and soybean oil using FTIR spectroscopy and chemometrics. Int J App Pharm 11(2):259–263

  • Santos JER, Villarino BJ, Zosa AR, Dayrit FM (2011) Analysis of volatile organic compounds in virgin coconut oil and their sensory attibutes. Philipp J Sci 140(2):161–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Seneviratne KN, Hapuarachchi CD, Ekanayake S (2009) Comparison of the phenolic-dependent antioxidant properties of coconut oil extracted under cold and hot conditions. Food Chem 114(4):1444–1449

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava Y, Semwal AD, Majumdar A (2016) Quantitative and qualitative analysis of bioactive components present in virgin coconut oil. Cogent Food Agric 2(1):1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Virginia MR, Karina SH, Horacio ST, Tomás QB, Concepción CC (2013) Lipids data composition of edible ant eggs, Liometopum apiculatum. M Escamoles J Life Sci 7(5):547

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zannat MM, Nandi R, Ashik-E-Rabbani M, Awal MA (2019) Performance evaluation of a motor operated oil palm crusher. Progress Agric 30(3):317–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhishen J, Mengcheng T, Jianming W (1999) The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food Chem 64(4):555–559

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by funding from ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (ICAR-CPCRI Grant No: 1000766014).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Horticulture, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka, India

    M. B. Cariappa, J. Venkatesh &  Vishnuvardhana

  2. Division of Physiology, Biochemistry and Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (ICAR-CPCRI), Kasaragod, Kerala, 671124, India

    S. V. Ramesh & K. B. Hebbar

  3. ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, College of Horticulture Campus, Tamaka, Kolar, Karnataka, India

    G. S. Chikkanna

  4. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 110001, India

    A. K. Singh

Authors
  1. M. B. Cariappa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. V. Ramesh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. G. S. Chikkanna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. J. Venkatesh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Vishnuvardhana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. K. B. Hebbar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. A. K. Singh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Study design and conceptualization: KBH, V, AKS & SVR; investigation: CMB, SVR; data analysis CMB, GSC, VJ, drafting of various sections of the manuscript: All authors and; Read and approved the final version of the manuscript: All authors.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to S. V. Ramesh or K. B. Hebbar.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

M.B. Cariappa declares that he has no conflict of interest. S.V. Ramesh declares that he has no conflict of interest. G.S. Chikkanna declares that he has no conflict of interest. J. Venkatesh declares that he has no conflict of interest. Vishnuvardhana declares that he has no conflict of interest. K.B. Hebbar declares that he has no conflict of interest. A.K. Singh declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 27 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cariappa, M.B., Ramesh, S.V., Chikkanna, G.S. et al. Detection of Oil Adulteration in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) Utilizing Chemometrics and Principal Component Analysis. Food Anal. Methods 16, 1291–1301 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-023-02506-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-023-02506-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation