Introduction

Loneliness is an increasingly recognized and critical concern in the workplace, impacting not only the well-being of employees but also organizational productivity and dynamics. Defined as the perception of unsatisfying interpersonal relationships, loneliness has been associated with a range of pathological behaviors, including social exclusion and apprehension (Basit & Nauman, 2023; Hussien, 2022; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018; Özcan & Koç, 2023). Workplace loneliness, characterized by a sense of disconnection and isolation within professional settings, poses a unique challenge for both employees and employers. Given its association with deficiencies in social belonging and interpersonal issues, we hypothesize that workplace loneliness may serve as a key antecedent to two focal pathological behaviors: social media addiction (SMA) and the fear of missing out (FoMO) (Barry & Wong, 2020; Carlson et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2023; Hussien, 2022).

Social media addiction in the workplace has become increasingly prevalent, attributed to the widespread use of the Internet and devices granting easy access to social media platforms. This behavioral addiction poses a significant concern for employers due to its association with counterproductive work behaviors, particularly cyberloafing (Hu et al., 2023; Leucă, 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023). Studies estimate that cyberloafing causes organizations to lose a staggering 85 billion USD annually in work productivity (Zakrzewski, 2016). Additionally, Diercksen and colleagues (2013) report that over half of employees engage in non-work-related social media use during working hours, leading to an annual loss of 2.25 billion USD for a single firm.

Pathological social media use has also been found to have detrimental effects on employees and their relationships with coworkers (Ahmad et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2022). Unhealthy workplace relationships are consistently linked to decreased productivity (Leucă, 2022; Zhou et al., 2022). Researchers have identified the fear of missing out (FoMO) as closely associated with social media use, characterized by a strong desire to stay informed and feelings of anxiety when disconnected from the latest updates (Barry & Wong, 2020; Chi et al., 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023). FoMO has been recognized as a counterproductive work behavior, leading to loneliness, anxiety, and other pathological tendencies (Barry & Wong, 2020; Gupta & Sharma, 2021; Özcan & Koç, 2023). Further, a study of 300 employees established that FoMO leads to burnout and excessive message-checking, both known to reduce overall productivity for organizations (Budnick et al., 2020).

In recent literature, research on the associations among loneliness, social media addiction, and FoMO has gained momentum, including investigations into the workplace setting. Although promising studies have linked these variables, the underlying mechanisms that drive these relationships remain complex and relatively unexplored. Therefore, the present study aims to build on existing evidence to unravel and gain deeper insights into these mechanisms.

To scrutinize the intricate web of mechanisms at play, we turn to the framework of the affective events theory (AET), which posits that certain emotions can trigger specific behavioral responses (Cacioppo et al., 2006, 2010; Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Hu et al., 2023; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018; Wright & Silard, 2021). Drawing from the AET, it is reasonable to posit that the negative emotions arising from loneliness may evoke maladaptive reactions, such as social exclusion, both within and outside the workplace (Basit & Nauman, 2023; Carlson et al., 2016; Hussien, 2022; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018). These feelings of exclusion, isolation, and perceptions of poor interpersonal relationships could potentially drive ostracized individuals to turn to social media platforms or the Internet to compensate for their lack of social inclusion and real-life interactions (Carlson et al., 2016; Mohanty & Mohanty, 2018; Sias, 2012; Poon, 2018; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).

Moreover, research on ostracized individuals reveals that being prevented from social networking and accessing information, irrespective of its work-related relevance, may lead to the fear of missing out (Özcan & Koç, 2023; Wolff & Moser, 2009). Drawing from this body of evidence, we deem it pertinent to investigate the potential mediating role of workplace ostracism on the relationship between loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO.

In light of the AET’s insights on how emotions trigger specific behavioral responses, it is essential to consider how external factors, such as personal attributes, can play a significant role in moderating the relationship between loneliness, workplace ostracism, and the development of social media addiction and FoMO (Özcan & Koç, 2023). In this context, positive personality traits, particularly resilience, have drawn considerable attention within the protective factor model as potent buffers against pathological tendencies and the detrimental impact of stressors (Bogaerts et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Sommovigo et al., 2019).

Resilient individuals have been found to possess the remarkable ability to maintain their mental well-being despite facing adversity, exhibiting superior recovery from stressors, and deriving constructive meaning from challenges and obstacles (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007; Bogaerts et al., 2021; Herrman et al., 2011; Sommovigo et al., 2019). Based on these inherent qualities of resilience and psychological theories, this study postulates that resilience can serve as a crucial buffer, mitigating the negative emotions associated with workplace loneliness and social exclusion (Fa-Kaji et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2017). As a result, resilience may play a pivotal role in safeguarding individuals from developing maladaptive behaviors, such as social media addiction and FoMO (Zhou et al., 2017).

Taken together, the aim of this study is threefold. Using a sample of 381 Taiwanese employees in various industries, we investigate the potential correlation between workplace loneliness, social media addiction, and FoMO. Subsequently, utilizing Hayes’s PROCESS macro Model 4, this study scrutinizes whether workplace ostracism mediates workplace loneliness and the two aforementioned psychological phenomena. Lastly, this study employs Hayes’s PROCESS macro Model 59 to determine the potential moderating effect, or lack thereof, of resilience in the relationship between workplace loneliness, social media addiction, and fear of missing out via workplace ostracism. The interrelation of these variables is visually represented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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The proposed moderated mediation model

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In addition to the immediate implications, it is important to highlight the novelty of this research. To our knowledge, this is the first study to probe the effect of workplace loneliness on behavioral anomalies such as social media addiction and the fear of missing out. By focusing on the workplace– a social setting often overlooked in existing research– this study illuminates under-examined variables such as workplace ostracism and resilience. These elements not only extend our understanding of the work environment but also help clarify the interplay between our key variables of interest.

Literature review and hypothesis development

Workplace loneliness

Loneliness is conceptualized as a distressing psychological condition that arises when “intimate and social needs are not adequately met” (Cacioppo et al., 2006, p.1055). While psychologists have dedicated considerable attention to the study of loneliness and its repercussions, the focus on the occurrence and impact of loneliness in a professional context remains surprisingly sparse, considering the significant proportion of life spent in a work setting.

In defining the concept of workplace loneliness for our research, we have relied upon the interpretation presented by Ozcelik and Barsade (2018). It captures an employee’s subjective emotional appraisal of the degree to which their affiliative needs are satisfied by their colleagues and the organization they serve. The study of loneliness within the workplace is of pressing relevance, given its recognition as a “modern epidemic” warranting significant attention (Killeen, 1998, p. 762).

The broader implications of loneliness underscore the importance of its exploration within professional environments, where establishing meaningful connections with others has been identified as an integral component of employee motivation and satisfaction (Basit & Nauman, 2023). Moreover, studies in management have long established that employees are motivated not solely by financial incentives but also by the need for social connections and attachments (Wright & Silard, 2021).

Extensive literature, both within and outside the workplace context, has firmly established that loneliness precipitates an array of negative emotional, cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences (Cacioppo et al., 2006, 2010; Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018; Wright & Silard, 2021). These adverse outcomes arise from the primal human urge to establish and maintain social bonds and mutual care commitments (Spilker & Breaugh, 2021), and the subsequent distress experienced when these social needs remain unfulfilled (Wright & Silard, 2021).

Given the role of loneliness as a precursor to various maladaptive behaviors, it is hypothesized that loneliness may present as a potential risk factor for the development of social media addiction and feelings of FoMO, our targeted pathological behaviors. Furthermore, psychological frameworks like the AET support the identification of loneliness as a key variable. Considering the ubiquitous nature of loneliness in the workplace and its potential association with the phenomena of interest, it is critical to examine loneliness in the present study.

Social media addiction

The advent of the Internet has spawned a digital landscape where social media platforms, ranging from Facebook to TikTok, have become central fixtures. These platforms are enabled by ubiquitous Internet-connected devices and facilitate instantaneous global connection and communication (Carlson et al., 2016; Özcan & Koç, 2023). With smartphones, tablets, and computers routinely linked to social media accounts, dependency on these platforms may escalate into overuse or addiction (Chi et al., 2022). Social media addiction, defined as an inability to regulate the use of social media platforms, has increasingly become a subject of concern (Andreassen et al., 2016; Davis, 2001; Ahmad et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2022).

The consequences of social media addiction are multifaceted, affecting various aspects of an individual’s life. It may lead to impaired health, increased anxiety, depression, and lower subjective well-being (Lin et al., 2016; Rachubińska et al., 2021). The addiction may also degrade relationship quality, reinforce dissatisfaction, and foster feelings of loneliness and ostracism (Carlson et al., 2016; Kross et al., 2013; Rachubińska et al., 2021). Further, it has been associated with increased unproductive behaviors, workplace accidents, and more (Becton et al., 2019; Leucă, 2022; Carson et al., 2016).

Particularly concerning is the prevalence of social media addiction in the workplace. Studies have shown that cyberloafing, or social media usage during work, is a common counterproductive behavior, costing companies financially (Hu et al., 2023; Leucă, 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023). The prevalence is striking, with 72% of participants in a study by Becton et al. (2019) using social media at least once during working hours and 55% accessing it several times a day.

Moreover, social media addiction’s manifestation goes beyond mere time loss. It affects cognitive ability, physical and emotional reactions, general mood (Davis, 2001), and problem-solving in interpersonal or psychological contexts (Carlson et al., 2016; Poon, 2018). These factors are intimately linked to counterproductive work behavior.

Given the widespread nature of social media addiction and its alarming consequences both in and out of the workplace, it becomes crucial to investigate this phenomenon within the context of our study. Understanding the mechanisms underlying social media addiction may contribute to the development of effective interventions, thereby promoting healthier individual and organizational functioning.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)

FoMO is a universal experience characterized by distress from social isolation, rejection, or exclusion (Gupta & Sharma, 2021). It is fundamentally defined as “pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent” (Pryzbylski et al., 2013, p. 1841). While FoMO was originally conceptualized with undergraduate students in non-work contexts—mainly focusing on social media activities—it has a distinct significance in professional settings.

In this context, FoMO is understood as a persistent concern that, in comparison to other employees, one might miss valuable career opportunities when away or disconnected from work. Workplace FoMO should thus reflect the fear of missing opportunities for enriching experiences such as building professional relationships, acquiring valuable information, or contributing to vital organizational decisions and projects (Budnick et al., 2020; Özcan & Koç, 2023).

In an organizational setting, we propose that workplace FoMO consists of three interrelated components: relational, informational, and work output exclusion (Budnick et al., 2020). Relational exclusion encapsulates employees’ fears that professional relationships might deteriorate due to missed networking or business relationship opportunities—strategies often promoted for career success (Wolff & Moser, 2009; Sias, 2012). Informational exclusion involves fears of being uninformed of crucial social or task-related information, leading to feeling “out of the loop” (Jones et al., 2009). This sense of exclusion is significant since information is a valuable workplace resource (Foa & Foa, 1980). Lastly, work output exclusion signifies employees’ fears of missing opportunities to contribute tangible inputs that might drive career progression (Budnick et al., 2020).

Research indicates a positive correlation between FoMO and problematic internet use, smartphone addiction, and excessive social media use, particularly during work hours (Hu et al., 2023; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Przybylski et al., 2013). As a result, FoMO is seen as a counterproductive behavior, contributing to loneliness, anxiety, and other pathological tendencies (Barry & Wong, 2020; Gupta & Sharma, 2021; Leucă, 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023). For instance, a study involving 300 employees revealed that FoMO results in burnout and excessive message-checking, both of which are known to diminish organizational productivity (Budnick et al., 2020).

FoMO is central to understanding an individual’s need for relatedness. Those who fail to satisfy this need adequately may experience heightened FoMO (Burnell et al., 2019; Gupta & Sharma, 2021; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Przybylski et al., 2013). Given the link between FoMO and the need for relatedness, as well as the connection between loneliness and the need to belong (Barry & Wong, 2020; Holte et al., 2022; Gupta & Sharma, 2021), FoMO could be seen as a marker for potential social ostracism and loneliness. Özcan and Koç (2023) further emphasize that factors underlying FoMO, such as social exclusion, ostracism, anxiety, and self-esteem, are critical to understanding the construct.

In light of FoMO’s prevalence in the workplace and its link to counterproductive work behaviors, its potential association with ostracism and loneliness, and the limited literature on workplace FoMO (Özcan & Koç, 2023; Wilding, 2016), we deem it imperative to delve deeper into FoMO in the current study.

Workplace ostracism as a mediator

Workplace ostracism, as understood in the context of this study, constitutes a prevalent professional phenomenon wherein individuals perceive themselves to be ignored or excluded by their peers within the workplace (Ferris et al., 2008). The extant literature converges on the observation that traits like loneliness, social avoidance, and aggression as catalysts for individual susceptibility to exclusion and subsequent ostracism (Mohanty & Mohanty, 2018; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018; Sias, 2012). It is also accepted that loneliness predisposes individuals to either being victims or perpetrators of workplace bullying, further isolating them from their colleagues and propelling ostracism (Blomberg & Rosander, 2020). Loneliness may also precipitate knowledge hiding– an intentional act of withholding requested information, thereby hampering communication and contributing to exclusionary experiences (Garg & Anand, 2020; Sias, 2012).

Supplemental to these observations, a number of psychological theories and pivotal studies elucidate the direct role loneliness appears to play in fostering ostracism. The generalized sensitivity hypothesis (Park et al., 2017) proposes that prior instances of exclusion amplify the sensitivity of lonely individuals towards social pain, thereby discouraging social interaction due to the anticipated distress (Cacioppo et al., 2010). Moreover, evidence indicates that even positive social interactions are perceived as less gratifying by lonely individuals, diminishing their motivation for such encounters (Becton et al., 2019; Cacioppo et al., 2010; Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008). Cumulatively, these factors can engender social isolation and ostracism in the workplace.

Ostracized individuals, prone to social withdrawal, may be more susceptible to developing a reliance on social media, an inclination potentially motivated by avoidance (Carlson et al., 2016; Davis, 2001; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996; Wolff & Moser, 2009). The avoidance theory posits that ostracized individuals might invest excessive time on the internet or social media platforms to evade real-life interpersonal predicaments (Poon, 2018). The cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001) also suggests that individuals burdened by psychosocial issues are more prone to develop maladaptive ideations, including a deluded perception of the Internet as their sole companion. This perspective may exacerbate the avoidance tendencies of ostracized individuals, fostering extreme indulgence in social media.

In addition, Carlson et al. (2016) postulated that individuals grappling with interpersonal issues might find online relationships more comfortable and confidence-inducing, prompting a preference for virtual over in-person interactions. We also posit that ostracized individuals might resort to social media platforms to fulfill their inherent needs for belonging and relationships (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Moreover, drawing from the AET, specific emotions evoke behavioral responses. For ostracized individuals, overuse of social media might serve as a response to the negative emotions engendered by deliberate social exclusion within their professional environment (Budnick et al., 2020; Wolff & Moser, 2009; Özcan & Koç, 2023).

Based on the literature, we present the following hypothesis:

  • H1: workplace ostracism mediates the relationship between workplace loneliness and social media addiction.

Ostracism within the workplace can escalate the fear of missing out primarily through two intersecting phenomena. First, ostracism can give rise to relational exclusion, which curtails an individual’s capacity to forge beneficial professional relationships and access associated opportunities. This exclusion can give rise to FoMO as individuals feel sidelined from these advantageous prospects (Budnick et al., 2020; Wolff & Moser, 2009; Özcan & Koç, 2023).

The second phenomenon entails informational exclusion, in which ostracized individuals find themselves isolated from occupational or social information, placing them “out of the loop” (Jones et al., 2009, p. 157). Uninformed individuals may experience heightened levels of FoMO compared to their well-informed peers, exacerbating the feelings of alienation and intensifying the fear of exclusion (Budnick et al., 2020; Özcan & Koç, 2023). Thus, ostracism can act as a double-edged sword, causing relational and informational exclusion and thereby contributing to a heightened sense of FoMO within the workplace.

Based on the literature, we present the following hypothesis:

  • H2: workplace ostracism mediates the relationship between workplace loneliness and fear of missing out.

Resilience as a moderator

While we hypothesize that workplace loneliness could heighten the risk of social media addiction and fear of missing out through the mediating role of workplace ostracism, we postulate that not every lonely individual will experience uniform levels of ostracism, social media addiction, or FoMO. This necessitates the exploration of potential moderating variables that might influence the relationship between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO. Considering potential moderators, we deem it crucial to assess how external factors, such as personal attributes, can significantly moderate the investigated relationships (Özcan & Koç, 2023).

In this context, positive personality traits, especially resilience, have garnered substantial attention within the protective factor model as potent shields against pathological tendencies and the harmful impact of stressors (Bogaerts et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Sommovigo et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2017). A narrative review by Herrman et al. (2011) characterizes resilience as “positive adaptation.” or the capability to sustain mental health amidst adversity. Those with resilience exhibit a remarkable capability to maintain mental wellbeing in the face of adversity, recover from stressors, and derive constructive meaning from challenges and obstacles (Bogaerts et al., 2021; Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007; Herrman et al., 2011; Sommovigo et al., 2019).

For instance, Wingo et al. (2014) demonstrated that resilience could counteract the adverse effects of childhood abuse on problematic alcohol and drug use. Subsequent studies echoed the finding that individuals embodying positive personal traits like resilience are better shielded against stressors and less prone to engage in problematic behaviors than their counterparts lacking these traits (Fa-Kaji et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2017). Considering this protective factor model, we posit that resilient people are less likely to let loneliness lead to other problematic behaviors. Such positive personal traits may diminish the propensity for stressors like loneliness and ostracism to induce problematic behaviors like social media overuse (Zhou et al., 2017).

Moreover, the biopsychosocial model of social media addiction or FoMO posits that multiple physiological, psychological, and social factors contribute to the risk factors of excessive social media usage or FoMO (Zhou et al., 2017). For example, highly resilient employees may foster positive peer relationships, providing a buffer against the relationship between loneliness/ostracism and social media addiction. Conversely, individuals lacking resilience might maintain less positive or fewer peer relationships (Sommovigo et al., 2019). The affective events theory further suggests that certain emotions, like the negativity resulting from social exclusion and poor interpersonal relationships, could provoke specific behavioral responses, such as resorting to the Internet or social media platforms to compensate for real-life social resource deficits or develop FoMO (Ahmad et al., 2022; Barry & Wong, 2020; Becton et al., 2019; Leucă, 2022; Zhou et al., 2017, 2022).

Given the existing literature underscoring the potential protective role of positive traits like resilience against pathological behaviors, we deem it crucial to examine the potential moderating role of resilience in the relationship between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO. Additionally, we aim to explore whether the indirect impact of workplace loneliness on social media addiction and FoMO, occurring via workplace ostracism, might be contingent on resilience. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

  • H3: Resilience moderates the direct and indirect relationship between workplace loneliness and social media addiction through workplace ostracism.

  • H4: Resilience moderates the direct and indirect relationship between workplace loneliness and the fear of missing out through workplace ostracism.

Method

Participants and procedure

This study utilized snowball sampling by asking executive master of business administration (EMBA) students and alumni of a Taiwanese university to act as the focal participants to access a sample population of full-time non-managerial employees in Taiwan. Upon acknowledging the study’s purpose and giving subsequent consent to be included, the focal participants were instructed to forward online surveys to five to ten other employees. This study utilized online Google Forms as the survey of choice due to safety concerns surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic. The validity and quality of the experiment were ensured through a pilot study, proper disclosure, and appropriate quality controls. Given the sampling methodology used, study participants represented different organizations in various industries in Taiwan, ensuring the samples’ representativeness. The industries included in the study were found to operate in food, biotechnology, manufacturing, textiles, communication, and technology. Prospective participants were provided with a cover letter and information detailing the study’s purpose, the questionnaire’s structure, confidentiality assurance, etc. Informed consent was required from the participants prior to filling out the questionnaires. The study included 405 responses, and questionnaires that were not answered fully were considered as incomplete. Thus, there were no omitted items in the questionnaires received. In addition, potentially problematic data, such as straight-lining responses and/or outliers, were removed from the data set. After the application of the exclusion criteria, 381 responses were deemed valid. In regards to sample demographics, 52.9% were male, and the majority (64.9%) of participants were married. The predominant age group was 51–60 years (30.1% of participants). More than half of the participants (67.1%) had bachelor’s degrees as their highest educational attainment, and most participants (64.6%) had been employed with their respective companies for over ten years.

To test for non-response bias, this study assessed the differences between early and late respondents with respect to the averages of the constructs (Armstrong & Overton, 1977; Li & Calantone, 1998). Early respondents were identified as the first 75% of returned questionnaires, and late respondents as the last 25%. No significant differences were found at the 0.05 level between the two groups of respondents.

Given the study sample, the measures utilized were translated from English into Mandarin Chinese and subsequently double-blind back-translated to ensure the equivalence of the incorporated items and mitigate cultural differences (Brislin, 1970).

Measures

Workplace Loneliness (WL)

The UCLA loneliness scale (ULS-4), developed by Russell et al. (1980), is a four-item, four-point Likert scale used to assess participants’ feelings of loneliness and social isolation in various social settings. The answer format to these items ranges from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The Cronbach’s alpha of this study was 0.813.

Workplace Ostracism (WO)

Participants’ perception of workplace ostracism was measured by a ten-item, seven-point Likert scale first developed and applied by Ferris et al. (2008). The responses of participants for items ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha of this study for this instrument was 0.980.

Social Media Addiction (SMA)

The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) constructed by Andreassen et al. (2016) is a six-item, five-point Likert scale used to assess the risk of social media addiction and to evaluate problematic social media use. The scale comprises six core components of addiction detailed by Griffiths (2000): salience, mood, modification, tolerance, withdrawal conflict, and relapse. Answers for the SMA ranged from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often). The Cronbach’s alpha of this study for BSMAS was determined to be 0.876.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)

The Fear of Missing Out Scale (FoMO) is a five-point Likert scale developed by Przybylski et al. (2013). Responses to items range from 1 (not at all true) to 5 (extremely true), with a higher overall score indicating higher levels of FoMO in participants. The Cronbach’s alpha of this study for FoMO was 0.908.

Resilience (RES)

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10), developed by Campbell-Sills and Stein (2007), is a ten-item, five-point Likert scale used to reflect the extent to which individuals are able to recover from or tolerate adverse experiences such as illness, failure, and pressure (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Answers to these items range from 0 (not true at all) to 4 (true nearly all the time). The Cronbach’s alpha of this study for the CD-RISC-10 was 0.933.

Control variables

This study included several control variables to ensure that the associations between the variables studied are not confounded. In alignment with previous research that suggests that certain individual demographics may influence employees’ perceptions and behaviors, this study controls for gender, marital status, age, education, and tenure (Chi et al., 2022; Budnick et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2023). These control variables allow this study to take into account their potential effects on mediating and dependent variables.

Data Analysis

All statistical analyses done in this study were performed with SPSS 21 and AMOS 21. Prior to statistical analysis, Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was implemented to ensure construct reliability and validity among study variables. Moreover, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to examine the existence of common method bias to avoid issues with self-reported questionnaires (Podsakoff et al., 2003), and a normal distribution of data was confirmed through a normality test. The study variables were analyzed using descriptive analysis and Pearson’s correlation analysis. The mediating effect of workplace ostracism in the association between workplace loneliness and social media addiction, in addition to the potential mediating effect in the relationship between workplace loneliness and fear of missing out, were analyzed through Hayes’s PROCESS macro Model 4 (Hayes, 2013). Finally, Model 59 (Hayes, 2013) was performed to test whether resilience moderated the mediation process. The bias-corrected percentile bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) based on 5000 resamples were utilized to determine whether the effects were significant (Hayes, 2013). Specifically, the effect is considered significant if the 95% CI excludes zero. Before the application of Models 4 and 59, the demographic covariates, gender, marital status, age, education, and tenure, were controlled. P-values were two-tailed for all tests, and a probability value of p < 0.05 was considered the significance level.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Table 1 demonstrates the means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis, zero-order Pearson correlation, and square root of average variance extracted (AVE) for the study variables. The skewness values ranged from − 0.125 to 0.488, while kurtosis values ranged from − 0.707 to 0.317. Skewness and kurtosis values were smaller than |1.5|, which suggested that the sample means were normally distributed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

Table 1 Descriptive statistics, correlation, and discriminant validity
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Bivariate correlations among study variables indicated that workplace loneliness was positively correlated with workplace ostracism (r = 0.135, p = 0.008), social media addiction (r = 0.160, p = 0.002), and fear of missing out (r = 0.158, p = 0.002). Workplace loneliness was found to be negatively correlated with resilience (r = -0.166, p = 0.001). Workplace ostracism was determined to be positively correlated with social media addiction (r = 0.350, p = 0.000) and fear of missing out (r = 0.395, p = 0.000). The square root of AVE was measured to assess discriminant validity for each construct and was found to be higher than the correlation coefficients between constructs, which authenticated the discriminant validity among the study variables (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).

Testing for common method bias

Given the cross-sectional and single-source nature of the study, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to identify potential issues concerning the common method bias. The Principal Component extraction technique with a single fixed factor without any rotations represented 30.527% of the variance, which indicates that the common method bias is unlikely to threaten our findings’ validity.

Table 2 presents acceptable reliability and convergent validity based on the validation provided by Hair et al. (2019). Composite reliability (CR) ranged from 0.882 to 0.983, and Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.813 to 0.980. The factor loadings and AVE values were above 0.6, higher than the threshold value of 0.5, further confirming the model’s validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table 2 Measurement model results
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Hypothesis testing

Hypotheses 1 and 2 were investigated using two Model 4 in PROCESS (Hayes, 2013). After controlling for the covariates, the results for hypothesis 1, as shown in Table 3, suggest that workplace loneliness is positively associated with workplace ostracism (Models 1 and 3) (Model 1 b = 0.290, p = 0.000; Model 3 b = 0.283, p = 0.015), which in turn were positively related to social media addiction (b = 0.214, p = 0.000) and fear of missing out (b = 0.248, p = 0.000). The positive direct association between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction (b = 0.188, p = 0.002) and fear of missing out (b = 0.177, p = 0.005) remain significant.

Table 3 Results of mediation analyses
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Finally, the results for the bias-corrected bootstrap method suggested that the indirect effect of workplace loneliness on social media addiction (indirect effect = 0.062, SE = 0.029, 95% CI = [0.010, 0.125]) and on fear of missing out (indirect effect = 0.070, SE = 0.033, 95% CI = [0.010, 0.138]) via workplace ostracism were both significant. Therefore, workplace ostracism partially mediated the association between workplace loneliness and social media addiction as well as the association between workplace loneliness and fear of missing out. Thus, hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported.

In hypotheses 3 and 4, this study predicts that resilience would moderate all pathways in the mediation process and applied Model 59 in PROCESS (Hayes, 2013) to conduct this moderated mediation analysis. As detailed in Table 4, results revealed that resilience moderated all pathways between workplace loneliness and social media addiction. Specifically, the effect of workplace loneliness on workplace ostracism (b = 0.395, p = 0.012) and social media addiction (b = 0.181, p = 0.027) was moderated by resilience. As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, follow-up simple slopes analysis indicated that the effect of workplace loneliness on workplace ostracism (bsimple = 0.538, p = 0.001) and social media addiction (bsimple = 0.311, p = 0.000) was more robust for participants with high levels of resilience (+ 1 SD) than for participants with lower levels of resilience (− 1 SD, workplace ostracism bsimple = 0.022, p = 0.890; social media addiction bsimple = 0.075, p = 0.348).

Fig. 2
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Interaction between workplace loneliness and resilience on workplace ostracism

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Fig. 3
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Interaction between workplace ostracism and resilience on social media addiction

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Table 4 Results of moderated mediation analyses
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Moreover, Model 2 of Table 4 indicates that the interaction term of workplace ostracism and resilience also had a significant predictive effect on social media addiction (b = 0.103, p = 0.010). The simple slope for the predictive function of workplace ostracism on social media addiction was stronger among participants with higher levels of resilience (+ 1 SD, bsimple = 0.261, p = 0.000) than those with lower levels of resilience (− 1 SD, bsimple = 0.126, p = 0.002). These findings supported hypothesis 3a.

Besides, the bias-corrected bootstrap analyses were performed to examine whether the indirect effect of workplace loneliness on social media addiction via workplace ostracism was moderated by resilience. The results revealed the conditional indirect effect in high levels of resilience (b = 0.140, SE = 0.057, 95%CI = [0.042, 0.266]) and low levels of resilience (b = 0.003, SE = 0.019, 95%CI = [-0.036, 0.040]) indicating significant differences. Therefore, hypothesis 3b was supported.

To test hypothesis 4, this study followed the same steps to examine the moderated mediation effects. As presented in Model 3 of Table 4, the interaction term of workplace loneliness and resilience had a significant predictive effect on workplace ostracism (b = 0.396, p = 0.012). As plotted in Figs. 4 and 5, the simple slope for the predictive function of workplace loneliness on workplace ostracism was larger among participants who reported higher levels of resilience (+ 1 SD, bsimple = 0.531, p = 0.007) than those who reported lower levels of resilience (− 1 SD, bsimple = 0.014, p = 0.927). Moreover, Model 4 of Table 4 shows that the interaction term of workplace ostracism and resilience had a significant predictive effect on the fear of missing out (b = 0.130, p = 0.017). Simple slopes analysis reported that workplace ostracism predicted fear of missing out significantly in both higher levels of resilience and lower levels of resilience; specifically, the predictive function on fear of missing out was stronger for participants with higher levels of resilience (+ 1 SD, bsimple = 0.314, p = 0.000) than for participants with lower levels of resilience (− 1 SD, bsimple = 0.145, p = 0.001). However, the moderating effect of resilience was not significant in the relationship between workplace loneliness and fear of missing out. Thus, hypothesis 4a was not supported.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Interaction between workplace loneliness and resilience on workplace ostracism

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Fig. 5
figure 5

Interaction between workplace ostracism and resilience on fear of missing out

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Moreover, the bootstrapping of 5,000 resamples was conducted to examine whether the indirect effect of workplace loneliness on fear of missing out via workplace ostracism was moderated by resilience. The results showed that the indirect relationship between workplace loneliness and fear of missing out was significant among participants who reported high levels of resilience (b = 0.166, SE = 0.068, 95%CI = [0.049, 0.319]) but not among those who reported low levels of resilience (b = 0.002, SE = 0.021, 95%CI = [-0.041, 0.042]). Therefore, hypothesis 4b was supported.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this study represents a novel investigation into the influence of workplace loneliness on both social media addiction and FoMO while examining the mediating role of workplace ostracism and the moderating role of resilience. Despite promising research connecting loneliness, social media addiction, and FoMO, the underlying mechanisms that govern these relationships remain relatively unexplored.

Consequently, this study aims to illuminate these variables within the context of the workplace, a social setting that has received limited attention in the literature on pathological behavior. By delving into this uncharted territory, our research seeks to contribute valuable insights into the field of study and offer a deeper understanding of the interplay between workplace dynamics and psychological phenomena.

Primary findings

This study delved into the association of workplace loneliness with both social media addiction and FoMO. The findings indicated a positive association between workplace loneliness and these phenomena, suggesting that individuals experiencing elevated levels of loneliness in the workplace may be more vulnerable to developing social media addiction and experiencing FoMO.

Consistent with the framework of affective events theory, our research elucidated how workplace loneliness adversely affects an employee’s fundamental need for belonging (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018). Consequently, this impairment of belongingness satisfaction triggers negative emotional responses, compelling employees to seek fulfillment through indulgence in social media addiction (Becton et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2023; Leucă, 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Zhou et al., 2022) and succumbing to FoMO (Barry & Wong, 2020; Burnell et al., 2019; Gupta & Sharma, 2021; Holte et al., 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Przybylski et al., 2013).

In line with previous research, we demonstrated a robust correlation between workplace ostracism and both social media addiction and FoMO (Mohanty & Mohanty, 2017; Holte et al., 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Sias, 2012). Specifically, when individuals experience ostracism in the workplace, they are prone to encountering relational exclusion, which impedes their ability to establish meaningful work connections and networks (Garg & Anand, 2020; Park et al., 2017; Sias, 2012). As a consequence, this exclusionary experience fosters feelings of FoMO and develops pathological social media use (Barry & Wong, 2020; Wolff & Moser, 2009).

Workplace loneliness was found to be a significant predictor of increased ostracism among employees (Cacioppo et al., 2010; Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Garg & Anand, 2020; Mohanty & Mohanty, 2018; Park et al., 2017; Sias, 2012; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018); moreover, workplace ostracism was identified as a key contributing factor that heightened individuals’ vulnerability to developing social media addiction and FoMO (Carlson et al., 2016; Davis, 2001; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Poon, 2018; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996; Wolff & Moser, 2009). Therefore, it is evident that workplace ostracism not only results from loneliness but also acts as a catalyst in the progression toward social media addiction and FoMO.

It is important to emphasize that workplace ostracism only partially mediated the relationship between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO. The remaining direct and positive relationships between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO may suggest that workplace loneliness may function as a direct factor that can significantly increase the susceptibility of individuals developing social media addiction (Hu et al., 2023; Leucă, 2022; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Zhou et al., 2022) and FoMO (Barry & Wong, 2020; Burnell et al., 2019; Gupta & Sharma, 2021; Özcan & Koç, 2023; Przybylski et al., 2013).

The moderating role of resilience was significant between (1) workplace loneliness and ostracism, (2) workplace ostracism with both social media addiction and FoMO, and (3) workplace loneliness with social media addiction. Contrary to our expectations given the risk-buffering model (Bogaerts et al., 2021; Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007; Fa-Kaji et al., 2023; Herrman et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2023; Sommovigo et al., 2019), our results actually indicate the positive moderating effect of resilience on the relationship between workplace loneliness and ostracism. Further, we found a positive moderating effect of resilience on the association between workplace ostracism and both social media addiction and FoMO. Lastly, the positive moderating effect of resilience was also implicated in the relationship between workplace loneliness and social media addiction.

To address this intriguing finding, we turn to Johnson et al.’s work (2011) on the interplay between resilience and suicidality. In their study, Johnson et al. 2011 delve into the buffering hypothesis, proposing that a resilience factor acts as a protective shield, reducing the likelihood of individuals experiencing high levels of risk. However, this resilience factor may remain “dormant” or less influential when individuals encounter lower levels of risk.

Drawing from this line of reasoning, we can consider loneliness, ostracism, addiction to social media, and feelings of FoMO as comparatively low-risk factors when contrasted with the high-risk nature of suicide, as emphasized by Johnson et al. 2011. In the context of the present study’s investigation into these phenomena, it appears that the presence of resilience does not serve as a protective buffer against social media addiction and FoMO, especially when individuals face relatively lower levels of risk.

Theoretical implications

This study presents several significant findings with far-reaching theoretical implications. Firstly, our research reveals a positive association between workplace loneliness and ostracism, indicating that feelings of loneliness trigger negative emotional responses, consequently leading to instances of ostracism in the workplace. Moreover, our investigation highlights a positive correlation between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO, underscoring the crucial role of loneliness in increasing individuals’ susceptibility to engaging in pathological behavior or experiencing negative emotions. As anticipated, our findings also establish a robust correlation between workplace ostracism and both social media addiction and FoMO. Based on these findings and the existing body of evidence, we propose that workplace loneliness and ostracism detrimentally affect an employee’s fundamental need for belonging, compelling them to seek fulfillment through indulgence in social media addiction or succumbing to FoMO.

Furthermore, our study demonstrates that workplace ostracism partially mediates the relationship between workplace loneliness and both social media addiction and FoMO. However, the most surprising result lies in the positive and significant moderating effect of resilience on the relationships between (1) workplace loneliness and ostracism, (2) workplace ostracism and both social media addiction and FoMO, and (3) workplace loneliness and social media addiction. This finding stands in contrast with the prevailing belief in the literature, which generally supports a negative moderating effect of resilience on similar phenomena. Nevertheless, our unexpected and possibly counterintuitive result aligns with Johnson et al.’s 2011 ideology, suggesting that a buffering effect or resilience factor is primarily activated to reduce the likelihood of individuals facing high levels of risk while remaining dormant when confronted with lower levels of risk, like the phenomena investigated in the present study.

Practical implications

The theoretical framework and empirical findings of this study offer valuable practical implications and recommendations for organizations. Beyond the potential sources of social media addiction and FoMO, this study reveals that workplace loneliness and ostracism also contribute to counterproductive work behaviors, leading to decreased productivity and compromised employee wellness. To address this issue, organizations should proactively identify and monitor instances of loneliness and ostracism in the workplace environment. Implementing subsequent interventions and programs can foster a friendly, interactive corporate culture, thereby reducing feelings of loneliness and discouraging ostracism among employees.

Moreover, organizations can derive benefits from the implementation of employee assistant programs, providing vital support to help employees effectively manage negative emotions and workplace relationships. Another promising avenue for exploration is the introduction of a company-wide communication platform or medium, promoting healthy interactions and encouraging the establishment and maintenance of relationships, thereby fostering a sense of belonging.

Limitations and future directions

This study is subject to various limitations we would like to discuss in the following section. First, this study is limited by self-reported measures, which may result in common method variance. However, this study confirmed the absence of this particular issue via Harman’s single-factor test. To further account for the limitation, future research should use additional assessment tools, such as qualitative methods like third-party observation and focus group interviews, to improve the generalizability and validity of conclusions. Further, although the cross-sectional study design is appropriate given the purposes of this study (Spector, 2019), we would like to remind readers that this study, by virtue of its methodology, is incapable of informing the casualty or the directionality of the relationships in our study variables. However, the limitation is compensated by the development of each hypothesized relationship based on theories and previous studies. Furthermore, the relationships determined in the study have been confirmed by employing the Process macro technique. Regardless, longitudinal or experimental study designs could help confirm the relations found and eliminate endogeneity concerns (Götz et al., 2021). Also, relating to sample collection, we would like to mention that our results have limited generalizability due to our usage of Taiwanese samples only. Future research using different sample populations would be able to lend further support to our study findings.

Conclusion

Loneliness represents the mental distress of not being able to satisfy one’s desires for meaningful social connection and can elicit unrelenting discomfort that leads to other pathological behaviors and conditions. Despite its gravity that warrants serious consideration, no research to date has investigated the influence of loneliness in the workplace on conditions like social media addiction and the fear of missing out, which also demands our attention. To address this gap in the literature, the present study provides empirical evidence that establishes the positive relationship between workplace loneliness and social media addiction, and FoMO. Further, we bring relatively unexplored factors like workplace ostracism and resilience into sharper focus as variables that can explicate these relationships. For these reasons and more, these novel findings have significant theoretical and practical implications and provide insight into the antecedents of social media addiction and FoMO in the workplace. A more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in the feeling of loneliness, addiction to social media, and FoMO in the workplace serves to elucidate other outstanding questions and relationships from an academic standpoint and can allow for more efficacious intervention strategies and programs to combat loneliness and other adverse conditions experienced in the workplace.