Abstract
Individuals who are involved in meaningful work are positively engaged in their jobs, perceiving it as both significant and congruent with themselves. Considering that meaningful work is related to positive working and organizational outcomes, a valid and reliable scale of meaningful work may be useful in research contexts and consultation projects to evaluate the effectiveness of psychological interventions aimed at increasing the perceived meaning of work. This study tested the psychometric properties of the Work and Meaning Inventory in the Italian context, verifying its measurement invariance across gender and its validity. Participants included 807 Italian adults, balanced by gender. The dimensions analysed are meaningful work, work engagement, organizational citizenship behaviour, flourishing, life satisfaction and job satisfaction. The results indicate good psychometric properties of the WAMI scale in the Italian context, confirming the original factor structure and showing good reliability indexes, measurement invariance across genders, and concurrent validity. Suggestions for further research and practical implications are discussed: the instrument can be useful in career counselling to reflect on the importance of meaningful work; organizations may benefit by promoting the meaningful work, as more engaged and more committed workers in turn will be more productive.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
if requested dataset is available.
Code Availability
used software for data analysis are: SPSS 25.0; Lisrel 8.80.
References
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the attitude-behavior relation: Reasoned and automatic processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779943000116
Akin, A., Hamedoglu, M. A., Kaya, Ç., & Sarıçam, H. (2013). Turkish version of the Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI): Validity and reliability study. Journal of European Education, 3(2), 11–16.
Allan, B. A., Batz-Barbarich, C., Sterling, H. M., & Tay, L. (2019). Outcomes of meaningful work: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management Studies, 56(3), 500–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12406
Argentero, P., Cortese, C. G., & Ferretti, M. S. (2008). An evaluation of organizational citizenship behavior: psychometric characteristics of the Italian version of Podsakoff et al.’s scale. TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 15(2), 61–75.
Bailey, C., Yeoman, R., Madden, A., Thompson, M., & Kerridge, G. (2019). A review of the empirical literature on meaningful work: Progress and research agenda. Human Resource Development Review, 18(1), 83–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484318804653
Balducci, C., Fraccaroli, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2010). Psychometric properties of the Italian version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9): A cross-cultural analysis. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000020
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Blustein, D. L. (2001). Extending the reach of vocational psychology: Toward an inclusive and integrated psychology of working. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1823
Blustein, D. L. (2006). The psychology of working: A new perspective for career development, counseling, and public policy. Erlbaum.
Blustein, D. L. (2008). The role of work in psychological health and well-being: A conceptual, historical, and public policy perspective. American Psychologist, 63(4), 228. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.228
Both-Nwabuwe, J., Dijkstra, M., & Beersma, B. (2017). Sweeping the floor or putting a man on the moon: How to define and measure meaningful work. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1658. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01658
Brown, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equations models (pp. 136–162). Sage.
Browne, M. W. (1987). Robustness of statistical inference in factor analysis and related models. Biometrika, 74(2), 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/74.2.375
Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2004). Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in modelselection. Sociological Methods & Research, 33(2), 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS, EQS, and LISREL: Comparative approaches to testing for the factorial validity of a measuring instrument. International Journal of Testing, 1(1), 55–86. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327574IJT0101_4
Byrne, B. M. (2008). Testing for multigroup equivalence of a measuring instrument: A walk through the process. Psicothema, 20(4), 872–882.
Christian, M. S., Garza, A. S., & Slaughter, J. E. (2011). Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 89–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x
Cortese, C. G. (2001). Prima standardizzazione del Questionario per la Soddisfazione per il lavoro (QSO). Risorsa Uomo, 8(3–4), 331–349.
Davila, M. C., & Finkelstein, M. A. (2013). Organizational citizenship behavior and well-being: Preliminary results. International Journal of Applied Psychology, 3(3), 45–51. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ijap.20130303.03
Di Fabio, A. (2018). The work and meaning inventory: Primo contributo alla validazione della versione italiana. Counseling: Giornale Italiano di Ricerca e Applicazioni, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.14605/CS1111808
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D. W., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y
Drenth, P. J. D. (1991). Work meanings: A conceptual, semantic and developmental approach. European Work and Organizational Psychologist, 1, 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602009108408517
Duffy, R. D., Allan, B. A., Autin, K. L., & Douglass, R. P. (2014). Living a calling and work well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 605–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000042
Duffy, R. D., Autin, K. L., & Bott, E. M. (2015). Work volition and job satisfaction: Examining the role of work meaning and person–environment fit. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(2), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12009
Fairlie, P. (2013). Age and generational differences in work psychology: Facts, fictions, and meaningful work. In J. Field, R. J. Burke, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of aging, work, and society (pp. 186–208). SAGE Publications Inc.
Fletcher, L., & Robinson, D. (2016). What’s the point? The importance of meaningful work. Thoughts for the day. IES Report. Institute for Employment Studies.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2), 250–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign. Addison-Wesley.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. Pearson.
Hodson, R. (1997). Group relations at work: Solidarity, conflict, and relations with management. Work and Occupations, 24(4), 426–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888497024004003
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Jacobs, H. (2014). An examination of psychological meaning fulness, safety, and availability as the underlying mechanisms linking job features and personal characteristics to work engagement. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Florida International University.
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7. User’s reference guide. Scientific Software.
Jöreskog, K., & Long, J. S. (1993). Introduction. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 294–325). SAGE Publications.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2006). LISREL 8.80 for Windows. Computer Software Scientific Software International.
Kahn, W. A. (2007). Meaningful connections: Positive relationships and attachments at work. In J. E. Dutton & B. R. Ragins (Eds.), Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation (pp. 189–206). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kline, P. A. (1999). Handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lam, C. F., Wan, W. H., & Roussin, C. J. (2016). Going the extra mile and feeling energized: An enrichment perspective of organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(3), 379–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000071
Leonardo, M. D. G. L., Pereira, M. M., Valentini, F., Freitas, C. P. P. D., & Damásio, B. F. (2019). Adaptation of Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) to the Brazilian context. Revista Brasileira de Orientação Profissional, 20(1), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.26707/1984-7270/2019v20n1p79
Lips-Wiersma, M., & Wright, S. (2012). Measuring the meaning of meaningful work: Development and validation of the Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS). Group & Organization Management, 37(5), 655–685. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601112461578
Magnano, P., Santisi, G., Zammitti, A., Zarbo, R., & Di Nuovo, S. (2019). Self-perceived employability and meaningful work: The mediating role of courage on quality of life. Sustainability, 11(3), 764–778. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030764
Magnano, P., Santisi, G., Platania, S., Zammitti, A., & Tous Pallares, J. (2020). The Italian version of the Work Psychosocial Climate Scale (Escala Clima Psicosocial en el Trabajo). Work, 66(4), 789–798. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-203225
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/57.3.519
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11–37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892
Meredith, W., & Teresi, J. (2006). An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care, 44(11), S69-S77. Retrieved August 6, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41219507
Milfont, T. L., & Fischer, R. (2015). Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3, 111–130. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.857
Mullen, M. R. (1995). Diagnosing measurement equivalence in cross-national research. Journal of International Business Studies, 26(3), 573–596. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490187
Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington Books/DC Heath and Com.
Paolillo, A., Pasini, M., Silva, S. A., & Magnano, P. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Italian adaptation of the MorBarak et al. Diversity climate scale. Quality & Quantity, 51(2), 873–890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0316-3
Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7
Puchalska-Kamińska, M., Czerw, A., & Roczniewska, M. (2019). Work meaning in self and world perspective: A new outlook on the WAMI Scale. Social Psychological Bulletin, 14(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.32872/spb.v14i1.30207
Raykov, T. (1998). Coefficient alpha and composite reliability with interrelated nonhomogeneous items. Applied Psychological Measurement, 22(4), 375–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662169802200407
Redelinghuys, K., Rothmann, S., & Botha, E. (2019). Workplace flourishing: Measurement, antecedents and outcomes. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45, a1549. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1549
Richardson, M. S. (1993). Work in people’s lives: A location for counseling psychologists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 425–433.
Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001
Rothmann, S., Van Zyl, L. E., & Rautenbach, C. (2019). Measuring flourishing@ work interventions: The development and validation of the flourishing-at-work scale. In Positive psychological intervention design and protocols for multi-cultural contexts (pp. 241–276). Springer.
Salanova, M., & Schaufeli, W. (2009). El engagement en el trabajo: Cuando el trabajo se convierte en passion. Editorial Alianza.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23–74. http://www.mpr-online.de
Schlechter, A. F., & Maharaj, I. (2007). Meaning in life and meaning of work: Relationships with organisational citizenship behaviour, commitment and job satisfaction. Management Dynamics: Journal of the Southern African Institute for Management Scientists, 16(3), 24–41. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC69726
Seligman, M. E., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). Positive psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 61(8), 774–788.
Singh, J. (1995). Measurement issues in cross-national research. Journal of International Business Studies, 26(3), 597–619. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490188
Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(4), 653. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.653
Spreitzer, G. M., Sutcliffe, K. M., Dutton, J. E., Sonenshein, S., & Grant, A. M. (2005). A socially embedded model of thriving at work. Organization Science, 16(5), 537–549. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0153
Steger, M. F., Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2012). Measuring meaningful work: The work and meaning inventory (WAMI). Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072711436160
Steger, M. F., Littman-Ovadia, H., Miller, M., Menger, L., & Rothmann, S. (2013). Engaging in work even when it is meaningless: Positive affective disposition and meaningful work interact in relation to work engagement. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(2), 348–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712471517
Traub, R. E. (1994). Reliability for the social sciences: Theory and applications (Vol. 3). Sage.
Vignoli, E., Prudhomme, N., Terriot, K., Cohen-Scali, V., Arnoux-Nicolas, C., Bernaud, J. L., & Lallemand, N. (2020). Decent work in France: Context, conceptualization, and assessment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 116(A), 103345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103345
Williamson, J. C., & Geldenhuys, M. (2014). Positive work experiences and life satisfaction: The moderating role of gender. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24(4), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2014.980619
Wrzesniewski, A. (2003). Finding positive meaning in work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc.
Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: People’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Paola Magnano: conceptualization, data management, data analysis, writing and editing;
Rita Zarbo: data collection, data analysis, writing;
Giuseppe Santisi: conceptualization, supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests
There is not any conflict of interests.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paola, M., Rita, Z. & Giuseppe, S. Evaluating meaningful work: Psychometric properties of the Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) in Italian context. Curr Psychol 42, 12756–12767 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02503-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02503-y