Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Family snapshot: Characteristics of the economic and social environment and their associations with mental health in Canadian military personnel with a history of deployment

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The high volume of deployments related to military operations in southwest Asia over the past two decades have generated interest in research on factors that may influence mental health among service members with a history of deployment. Identifying key risk and protective factors for mental health disorders in military populations is an integral step towards developing or improving policies and programs aimed at enhancing resilience to deployment stress. In line with the growing consideration of research on social determinants of health, the objectives of the present study were to i) examine the characteristics of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) members’ economic and social environment and ii) examine the associations between these characteristics and mental health. Participants included 6,040 CAF members who were deployed at least once in support of a mission and completed the 2013 Canadian Forces Mental Health Survey (CFMHS). A range of economic and social environmental characteristics were examined, including education, income, marital status, household composition, and social support. Accounting for various other demographic and military characteristics, results indicated that living as a single parent was associated with increased odds of reporting any past year anxiety or mood disorder. Additionally, those with a Bachelor’s degree or higher appeared to have decreased odds of reporting any past year anxiety or mood disorder. The results underline at risk groups and reinforce the value of considering the personal and social circumstances of military personnel in research on their mental health and well-being.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. CAF members were as likely to be separated or divorced (6% vs 7%) as members of the general Canadian population.

References

  • Adler, N. E., & Newman, K. (2002). Socioeconomic disparities in health: Pathways and policies. Health Affairs, 21(2), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akhtar-Danesh, N., & Landeen, J. (2007). Relation between depression and sociodemographic factors. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 1(4), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-1-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, G.M., & Cunradi, C.B. (n.d.) Alcohol use and preventing alcohol-related problems among young adults in the military. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Retrieved June 24th, 2019 from: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh284/252-257.htm.

  • Ames, G.M., Baraban, E.A., Cunradi, C.B., & Moore, R.S. (June, 2004). A longitudinal study of drinking behavior among young adults in the military. Paper presented at the research society on alcoholism annual scientific meeting, Vancouver.

  • Backlund, E., Sorlie, P. D., & Johnson, N. J. (1996). The shape of the relationship between income and mortality in the United States. Evidence from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Annals of Epidemiology, 6(1), 12–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Born, J. A., & Zamorski, M. A. (2019). Contribution of traumatic deployment experiences to the burden of mental health problems in Canadian Armed Forces personnel: Exploration of population attributable fractions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 54(2), 145–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulos, D., & Zamorski, M. A. (2013). Deployment-related mental disorders among Canadian forces personnel deployed in support of the mission in Afghanistan, 2001-2008. CMAJ, 185(11), E545–E552. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.122120.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boulos, D., & Zamorski, M. A. (2016). Contribution of the mission in Afghanistan to the burden of past-year mental disorders in Canadian Armed Forces personnel, 2013. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(1_suppl), 64S-76S.

  • Bowen, G. L., Orthner, D. K., Zimmerman, L. I., & Meehan, T. (1992). Family patterns and adaptation in the U.S. Army (technical report). Alexandria: Army research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, S. K., & Greenberg, N. (2018). Non-deployment factors affecting psychological wellbeing in military personnel: Literature review. Journal of Mental Health, 27(1), 80–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabrera, O. A., Hoge, C. W., Bliese, P. D., Castro, C. A., & Messer, S. C. (2007). Childhood adversity and combat as predictors of depression and post-traumatic stress in deployed troops. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.03.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caron, J. (2013). A validation of the social provisions scale: The SPS-10 items. Santé Mentale Québec, 38(1), 297–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caron, J., & Liu, A. (2010). A descriptive study of the prevalence of psychological distress and mental disorders in the Canadian population: Comparison between low-income and non-low-income populations. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 30(3), 84–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012, May 16). Higher education and income levels keys to better health, according to annual report on nation's health. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2012/p0516_higher_education.html.

  • Coombs, R. H. (1991). Marital status and personal well-being: A literature review. Family Relations, 40(1), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/585665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1987). The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. In W. H. Jones & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (pp. 37–67). Greenwich: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaton, A. S., & Paxton, C. H. (1998). Aging and inequality in income and health. American Economic Review, 88(2), 248–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Gohm, C. L., Suh, E., & Oish, S. (2000). Similarity of the relations between marital status and subjective well-being across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(4), 419–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eibner, C., Ringel, J. S., Kilmer, B., Pacula, R. L., & Diaz, C. (2008). The cost of postdeployment mental health and cognitive conditions. In T. Tanielian & L. H. Jaycox (Eds.), Invisible wounds of war (pp. 169–241). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ettner, S. L. (1996). New evidence on the relationship between income and health. Journal of Health Economics, 15(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-6296(95)00032-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, M., & Baum, F. (2010). The social determinants of mental health: Implications for research and health promotion. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(12), 1057–1063. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048674.2010.509311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, C., Davis, C. G., & Elgar, F. (2014). Financial strain, neighbourhood social capital and perceived health during economic recession: A case study in rural Ontario. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 27(4), 422–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2013.864389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, C., Zamorski, M. A., Lee, J. E. C., & Colman, I. (2018). Deployment-related trauma and PTSD: Does gender matter? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9, 1486123. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1486123.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Furnée, C. A., Groot, W., Vanden, M., & Brink, H. (2008). The health effects of education: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Public Health, 18(4), 417–421. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckn028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gadermann, A. M., Engel, C. C., Naifeh, J. A., Nock, M. K., Petukhova, M., Santiago, P. N., Wu, B., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2012). Prevalence of DSM-IV major depression among U.S. military personnel: Meta-analysis and simulation. Military Medicine, 177(8), 47–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glover, C.P.R., (2015). Servicewomen’s experiences of recovery in the aftermath of war: A qualitative analysis. Dissertations & Theses, 243. Retrived July 10th, 2019 from https://aura.antioch.edu/etds/243.

  • Hatch, S. L., Harvey, S. B., Dandeker, C., Burdett, H., Greenberg, N., Fear, N. T., & Wessely, S. (2013). Life in and after the armed forces: Social networks and mental health in the UK military. Sociology of Health & Illness, 35(7), 1045–1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Lesikar, S. E., Guevara, R., Lange, J., Brundage, J. F., Engel, C. C., et al. (2002). Mental disorders among US military personnel in the 1990s: Association with high levels of health care utilization and early military attrition. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(9), 1576–1583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Toboni, H. E., Messer, S. C., Bell, N., Amoroso, P., & Orman, D. T. (2005). The occupational burden of mental disorders in the U.S. military: Psychiatric hospitalizations, involuntary separations, and disability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(3), 585–591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Auchterlonie, J. L., & Milliken, C. S. (2006). Mental health problems, use of mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. JAMA, 295(9), 1023–1032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Terhakopian, A., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., & Engel, C. C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), 150–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, W. (1994). Reliability and validity of the WHO-composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI): A critical review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 28(1), 57–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karney, B. R., Ramchand, R., Osilla, K. C., Caldarone, L. B., & Burns, R. M. (2008). Predicting the immediate and long-term consequences of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and traumatic brain injury in veterans of operation enduring freedom and operation Iraqi freedom. In T. Tanielian & L. H. Jaycox (Eds.), Invisible wounds of war (pp. 119–166). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., & Ustün, T. B. (2004). The world mental health (WMH) survey initiative version of the World Health Organization (WHO) composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13(2), 93–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, K., (2014). Income and mental health in the Canadian general, military, and veteran populations: A multiple database investigation. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Manitoba, Manitoba. Retrieved July 7th, 2018 from: https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/bitstream/handle/1993/23898/Klassen_Kristen.pdf?sequence=1.

  • Klose, M., & Jacobi, F. (2004). Can gender differences in the prevalence of mental disorders be explained by sociodemographic factors? Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 7(2), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-004-0047-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, N., Sembajwe, G., Kawachi, I., van Dam, R. M., Subramanian, S. V., & Yamagata, Z. (2009). Income inequality, mortality, and self rated health: Meta-analysis of multilevel studies. BMJ, 339, 33. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b4471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. E. C., Sudom, K. A., & Zamorski, M. A. (2013). Longitudinal analysis of psychological resilience and mental health in Canadian military personnel returning from overseas deployment. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18(3), 327–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstrom, M., & Rosvall, M. (2012). Marital status, social capital, economic stress, and mental health: A population-based study. The Social Science Journal, 49(3), 339–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2012.03.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lund, C., Stansfield, S., & De Silva, M. (2014). Social determinants of mental health. In V. Patel, H. Minas, A. Cohen, & M. J. Prince (Eds.), Global mental health: Principles and practice. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macinko, J. A., Shi, L., Starfield, B., & Wulu, J. T., Jr. (2003). Income inequality and health: A critical review of the literature. Medical Care Research and Review, 60(4), 407–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, M.B., Campbell, L., Macintosh, S., Lee, J., & Pedlar, D. (2015, December 14th). Research on military/veteran families (V32–258/2016E-PDF). Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada: Veteran Affairs Canada. Retrieved from: http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/about-us/research-directorate/publications/reports/2015-research-military-veteran-families.

  • Marmot, M., & Wilkinson, R. (2005). Social organization, stress, and health. In M. Marmot (Ed.), Social determinants of health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Neilsen Arendt, J. (2005). Does education cause better health? A panel data analysis using school reforms for identification. Economics of Education Review, 24(2), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2004.04.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C., Cyr, K. S., Corbett, B., Hurley, E., Gifford, S., Elhai, J. D., & Richardson, J. D. (2011). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and suicidal ideation among Canadian forces personnel in a National Canadian Military Health Survey. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1483–1488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.06.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nomaguchi, K. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2003). Costs and rewards of children: The effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(2), 356–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00356.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Office of the Surgeon General (2006) Final report: Mental health advisory team (MHAT) IV: Operation Iraqi freedom 05–07. Washington, DC. Retrieved July 26th, 2018, from: http://www.combatreform.org/MHAT_IV_Report_17NOV06.pdf.

  • Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, J. (2015). A profile of the Canadian forces. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Statistics Canada. Retrieved July 8th, 2018 from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-001-x/2008107/article/10657-eng.htm.

  • Patten, S. B., Wang, J. L., Williams, J. V., Currie, S., Beck, C. A., Maxwell, C. J., & El-Guebaly, N. (2006). Descriptive epidemiology of major depression in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51(2), 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370605100204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramchand, R., Rudavsky, R., Grant, S., Tanielian, T., & Jaycox, L. (2015). Prevalence of, risk factors for, and consequences of posttraumatic stress disorder and other mental health problems in military populations deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(5), 37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riddle, J. R., Smith, T. C., Smith, B., Corbeil, T., Engel, C. C., Wells, T. S., et al. (2007). Millennium cohort: The 2001-2003 baseline prevalence of mental disorders in the U.S. military. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 60, 192–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C. E., Van Willigen, M., & Van Willigen, M. (1996). Gender, parenthood, and anger. Journal of Marriage and Family, 58(3), 572–584. https://doi.org/10.2307/353718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rusu, C., Zamorski, M.A., Boulos, D., & Garber, B.G. (2016). Prevalence comparison of past-year mental disorders and suicidal behaviors in the Canadian armed forces and the Canadian general population. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(supplement 1), 46s-55s.

  • Shavers, V. L. (2007). Measurement of socioeconomic status in health disparities research. Journal of the National Medical Association, 99(9), 1013–1023.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skomorovsky, A., & Bullock, A. (2015). The impact of military life on single-parent military families: Well-being and resilience (DRDC-RDDC-2015-R099). Ottawa, Ontario: Defence Research and Development Canada, Director General Military Personnel Research and Analysis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skopp, N. A., Reger, M. A., Reger, G. M., Mishkind, M. C., Raskind, M., & Gahm, G. A. (2011). The role of intimate relationships, appraisals of military service, and gender on the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms following Iraq deployment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(3), 277–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (2014). Candian forces mental health survey (CFMHS). Retreived April 30th, 2017 from: http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=5084.

  • Statistics Canada (2015). Analytic document: Education in Canada: Attainment, field of study and location of study (catalogue no. 99–012-X2011001). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Statistics Canada. Retrieved July 23rd, 2018 from: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-012-x/99-012-x2011001-eng.pdf.

  • Statistics Canada (2017a). Table 051–0042 - Estimates of population, by marital status or legal marital status, age and sex for July 1, Canada, provinces and territories, annual (persons), CANSIM (database). Retrieved July 23rd, 2018 from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710001301.

  • Statistics Canada (2017b). CANSIM, Table 111–0009. Retrieved July 23rd, 2018 from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/famil108a-eng.htm.

  • Theriault, F., Gabler, K., & Naicker, K. (2016). Health and lifestyle information survey of Canadian Forces personnel 2013/2014 – Regular Force report. Ottawa: Department of National Defence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Therrien, M. E., Richer, I., Lee, J. E. C., Watkins, K., & Zamorski, M. A. (2016). Family/household characteristics and positive mental health of Canadian military members: Mediation through social support. Journal of Military, Veteran and Family Health, 2(2), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.3118/jmvfh.4017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Proctor, S. P., Friedman, M. J., Hoge, C. W., Heeren, T., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (2010). PTSD symptom increases in Iraq-deployed soldiers: Comparison with nondeployed soldiers and associations with baseline symptoms, deployment experiences, and postdeployment stress. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(1), 41–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voss, M., Nylén, L., Floderus, B., Diderichsen, F., & Terry, P. D. (2004). Unemployment and early cause-specific mortality: A study based on the Swedish twin registry. American Journal of Public Health, 94(12), 2155–2161. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.12.2155.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Waite, L., & Gallager, M. (2000). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier and better off financially. New York: Double Day.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, C. A., MacMillan, H. L., Trocmé, N., Jamieson, E., & Boyle, M. H. (2008). Measurement of victimization in adolescence: Development and validation of the childhood experiences of violence questionnaire. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(11), 1037–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.05.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, K., Sudom, K., & Zamorski, M. (2016). Association of combat experiences with post-traumatic stress disorder among Canadian military personnel deployed in support of the mission in Afghanistan. Military Behavioral Health, 4(3), 285–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Z., Noh, S., Kaspar, V., & Schimmele, C. M. (2003). Race, ethnicity, and depression in Canadian society. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 426–441. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519788.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xue, C., Ge, Y., Tang, B., Liu, Y., Kang, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, L. (2015). A meta-analysis of risk factors for combat-related PTSD among military personnel and veterans. PLoS One, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120270.

  • Zamorski, M. A., & Boulos, D. (2014). The impact of the military mission in Afghanistan on mental health in the Canadian Armed Forces: A summary of research findings. European Journal Psychotraumatolology, 5, 23822. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.23822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamorski, M. A., Rusu, C., & Garber, B. G. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of mental health problems in Canadian forces personnel who deployed in support of the mission in Afghanistan: Findings from postdeployment screenings, 2009–2012. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 59(6), 319–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, F. J., & Katon, W. (2005). Socioeconomic status, depression disparities, and financial strain: What lies behind the income-depression relationship? Health Economics, 14(12), 1197–1215. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann, A. C., & Easterlin, R. A. (2006). Happily ever after? Cohabitation, marriage, divorce, and happiness in Germany. Population and Development Review, 32(3), 511–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Director General Military Personnel Research and Analysis, Department of National Defence, Ottawa, Canada

    Christine Frank & Jennifer E. C. Lee

  2. Directorate of Mental Health, Department of National Defence, Ottawa, Canada

    Mark A. Zamorski

Authors
  1. Christine Frank
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer E. C. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mark A. Zamorski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christine Frank.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Statement

This data was collected under Canada’s Statistics Act.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Mark A. Zamorski Deceased 17 August 2018.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Frank, C., Lee, J.E.C. & Zamorski, M.A. Family snapshot: Characteristics of the economic and social environment and their associations with mental health in Canadian military personnel with a history of deployment. Curr Psychol 40, 4394–4405 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00357-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00357-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation