Introduction

Social networking sites (SNSs) are immensely popular among Chinese adolescents. Nearly 33.8% of Chinese teenagers are active users, and this ratio is still increasing (CNNIC 2014). Given the prevalence of SNSs, there is a growing concern about the potential effects of SNSs on adolescents’ mental health. Scholars have investigated the link between SNSs use and psychosocial adaptation among adolescents, but the findings remain inconsistent. Some studies demonstrated that SNS use has become a threat to people’s life satisfaction, and could even result in depressive symptoms (Appel et al. 2016; Labrague 2014; Tandoc et al. 2015). Other studies showed that SNS use could be a promoting factor of life satisfaction (Basilisco and Jin 2015; Nabi et al. 2013; Valenzuela et al. 2009). For instance, Basilisco and Jin (2015) found that one’s life satisfaction would be positively predicted by SNS usage, which could satisfy users’ needs of social support, entertainment, and information. A recent study by Berryman et al. (2017) demonstrated that social media use is a poor predictor of mental health problems.

Under the debate over the effects of SNS usage, Frison and Eggermont (2016) assumed that researchers should pay attention to the types of SNS use, namely active and passive social networking site use. Active SNS use consists of interactions between the user and other SNSs friends in a private or public setting (e.g., instant messaging and status updating) (Frison and Eggermont 2016). Self-disclosure on SNSs is a process by which an individual shares personal feelings, thoughts, experiences and information with others on SNSs (Liu and Brown 2014). Although active social networking site use and self-disclosure on SNSs are two different concepts, they share some common features. Firstly, they both reflect the frequency of participants’ disclosure of thoughts, behaviors or emotions on SNSs. Secondly, they both describe the process that individuals initiate interaction with others on SNSs (Ellison et al. 2007).

Active SNS use, as a positive behavior on SNSs, can be a main reason for improving life satisfaction. Hyperpersonal communication theory demonstrated that due to lack of contextual, visual, and auditory cues, SNSs provide users with a relatively secure interpersonal environment, in which users could disclose themselves freely (Frison and Eggermont 2016). In line with this argument, active SNS use may be beneficial for users to establish or maintain relationships and reduce feelings of stress, loneliness and depression (Al-Saggaf and Nielsen 2014; Frison and Eggermont 2016; Lee et al. 2013; Nabi et al. 2013; Xie 2014). Active posting of photographs and information on SNSs also has been proved to be able to meet users’ need of self-presentation and sense of belonging (Nadkarni and Hofmann 2012). Research further illustrated that active posting of photographs and information on SNSs was significantly correlated with life satisfaction or subjective well-being (Kim and Lee 2011; Lee et al. 2011),

Previous studies exploring the impact mechanism of self-presentation on social networking sites (a form of active SNS use) on life satisfaction focused on how self-presentation on social networking sites affected life satisfaction through improving the development of self (Nabi et al. 2013; Valkenburg et al. 2006). Fewer studies, however, focused on the active SNS use directly and examined the influence of active SNS use on life satisfaction from the perspective of interpersonal factors. Considering that interpersonal interaction is one of the most basic attributes of SNSs (Ellison 2008; Oh et al. 2014), it is necessary to test the role of interpersonal factors in the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to extend our understanding about how active SNS use affects adolescents’ life satisfaction through an interpersonal relations perspective. Specifically, two aspects of interpersonal relations—namely, positive feedback and relational certainty—were tested as sequential mediators of the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction.

The Mediating Role of Positive Feedback on SNSs

Social networking sites provide a venue for people to get positive feedback (Walters and Horton 2015). Positive feedback on SNSs refers to the supportive response from other people in the social networking sites, or important support resources available to users on SNSs (Liu and Brown 2014). Active SNS use could improve the likelihood for users to obtain positive feedback. Previous research considered that most of social interactions on SNSs occurred among acquaintances, such as friends, classmates or relatives (Knobloch and Knobloch-Fedders 2010; Liu and Brown 2014). These features of interpersonal interaction on SNSs help users acquire positive feedback, such as positive comments and likes (Walters and Horton 2015). Liu and Brown (2014) found that self-disclosure on SNSs could positively predict the users’ positive feedback. Frison and Eggermont (2016) also showed that active use behaviors on SNSs have a positive effect on perceived social support.

The impact of positive feedback on users’ life satisfaction has also been confirmed. Valkenburg et al. (2006) found that positive feedback on friend network site was beneficial for relationship forming between users, which in turn enhance adolescents’ self-esteem and life satisfaction. Studies also showed that positive feedback could play a mediating role in the relation between self-disclosure on SNSs and bonding social capital which may contribute to higher life satisfaction (Liu and Brown 2014; Elgar et al. 2011). Therefore, the present study hypothesizes that positive feedback will mediate the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction (Hypothesis 1).

The Mediating Role of Relational Certainty

Research suggests that active SNS use has a positive influence on adolescents’ relational certainty. Relational certainty refers to a mental state of evaluating or identifying some necessary cues, such as relationship status, partners’ mental state and behavior in the interpersonal circumstances (Morgan et al. 2016; Theiss and Nagy 2010). Verbal strategies may help enhance relational certainty when people interact via technology. Jin and Pena (2010) demonstrated that more mobile communication was associated with higher relational certainty. Palmieri et al. (2012) also found a positive association between the frequency of self-disclosure on Facebook and relational certainty. Since increased information sharing and receiving improves relational certainty, active SNS use characterized by information exchanging, may be positively associated with mutual understanding and high relational certainty among SNS users.

Furthermore, relational certainty may play an important role in SNS users’ levels of life satisfaction. Knobloch and Knobloch-Fedders (2010) showed that participants who experienced more relational uncertainty reported lower relationship quality, which was negatively correlated with life satisfaction (Raboteg-Saric and Sakic 2014). According to uncertainty reduction theory, uncertainty reduction was crucial for individuals to experience higher communication satisfaction and lower negative emotions (Neuliep 2012). Research also demonstrated that relational uncertainty was one of the most salient factors that caused social anxiety and other negative emotions (Boelen and Reijntjes 2009; Whiting et al. 2014). Given that negative emotions affect life satisfaction negatively (Yamasaki et al. 2010), it is reasonable to expect that individuals who experienced more relational certainty would have higher life satisfaction. In addition, relational certainty could play a mediating role in the relation between Facebook use and relationship satisfaction (Fox and Warber 2014). Therefore, active SNS use may affect individuals’ life satisfaction through the mediating effect of relational certainty (Hypothesis 2).

The Sequential Mediating Roles of Positive Feedback on SNSs and Relational Certainty

Interactive and verbal strategies, according to uncertainty reduction theory, are common ways for people to deal with relational uncertainty (Jin and Pena 2010; Rhodes 2008). Positive feedback, as one of the most common ways of interaction on SNSs, could provide information for individuals to understand friends’ attitudes and behaviors (Brashers et al. 2004; Christensen 2007). On the contrary, negative feedback may lead to confusion about relationship, and improve the relational uncertainty (Maas and Bos 2011). Because of reducing confusion about relationship and clarifying partners’ attitudes and behaviors, positive feedback may be associated with higher relational certainty. Since relational uncertainty could mediate the relation between social support and adjustment (Mishel and Braden 1987; Sammarco 2001), relational certainty may play a mediating role in the relation between positive feedback and life satisfaction. In other words, positive feedback brought by active SNS use could meet the need of information for reducing relational uncertainty, which may lead to a positive cognitive judgment of one’s life as a whole. Therefore, positive feedback and relational certainty may play a sequential mediating role in the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction (Hypothesis 3).

The Present Study

Research findings have shown that active SNS use has alleviating influence on depressive symptoms. Little attention, however, has been paid to whether active SNS use affects life satisfaction, and the mechanisms of this association. Therefore, A sequential mediators model was tested in the present study to explain the complex mechanism of active SNS use on adolescents’ life satisfaction by drawing on the hyperpersonal communication theory (Frison and Eggermont 2016) and uncertainty reduction theory (Neuliep 2012). Specifically, this study tested a sequential mediating model to examine the potential mediating effects of positive feedback and relational certainty in the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction. The results may contribute to the current literature by extending our understanding about how active SNS use affects life satisfaction. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

  • Hypothesis 1, positive feedback will mediate the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction.

  • Hypothesis 2, Active SNS use may affect individuals’ life satisfaction through the mediating effect of relational certainty.

  • Hypothesis 3, positive feedback and relational certainty may play a sequential mediating role in the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction.

Methods

Participants and Procedure

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the authors’ institution. All the participants were recruited from two senior middle schools in Guangzhou and Shenzhen respectively, two major cities in the southern part of China. Convenience sampling was used to randomly choose two classes in each grade from 10th grade to 12th grade. The data were collected between October and November 2016. In order to encourage honest answer, trained data collectors (postgraduate psychology students) emphasized the anonymity of the study at the beginning of collection session. After receiving instructions about the requirements of questionnaires, all participants, firstly, gave written informed consent and then provided their demographic information. They then completed all of the questionnaires in 45 min. After removing responses with incomplete data, the final sample contained 742 participants. Participants were between the age of 15 and 20 years old (mean age was 16.35 years old), and 54.6% of them were girls.

Measurements

Active Social Networking Site Use Scale

To measure the intensity of active SNS use, participants were asked to complete the Active SNS use Scale (Frison and Eggermont 2016). Previous research showed that the Active SNS use Scale is of satisfactory reliability and validity (see Frison and Eggermont 2016). Using a 7-point scale (1 = never, 7 = several times per day), participants evaluated 5 items (e.g., “How often do you post a message on your own social networking sites timeline”; “How often do you post a photo on your own social networking sites timeline”) By summing the item scores and dividing the sum by the total items, an estimate of adolescents’ active SNS use was produced. The items demonstrated high reliability (α = 0.815).

Positive Feedback Scale

Participants’ degree of receiving positive feedback on social networking sites was measured by Positive Feedback Scale modified by Liu and Brown (2014). This scale aimed to assess how often participants received positive feedback when posting photos, opinions, and comments about their problems or things that made them proud. Participants were required to respond to five items (e.g., “How often do you receive positive feedback or response when you update status on social networking sites.”) from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Responses were averaged to form a combined measure of receiving positive feedback on social networking sites in general (α = 0.906).

Relational Certainty Evaluation Scale

We used the Relational Certainty Evaluation Scale (Antheunis et al. 2010) to evaluate participants’ level of relational certainty. This scale consists of five items, four of which were from Clatterbuck (1979): “I can predict very well how this person will behave,” “I can predict very well the things this person finds important,” “I can predict very well this person’s attitudes” and “I can predict very well this person’s feelings and emotions” (Clatterbuck 1979). The fifth item was from Kellermann and Reynolds (1990): “I understand this person well.” Participants were required to respond to these items from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Responses were averaged to form a combined measure of relational certainty degree in general (α = 0.858).

Life Satisfaction Scale

As has been widely used in a diversity of samples and has shown good validity (Diener et al. 1985), 5-item Life Satisfaction Scale was administered for this study. This scale consists of five items (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”) answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Responses were averaged to form a combined measure of life satisfaction. Higher scores indicate higher level of life satisfaction (α = 0.760).

Control Variables

According to prior research on SNS use (Frison and Eggermont 2016), there is a marked gender difference in perceived social support on SNSs. Given that positive feedback on SNS is a concrete expression of perceived social support on SNSs (Liu and Brown 2014), it is necessary to incorporate gender as a control variable into the regression model.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Pearson correlations were conducted to examine bivariate associations among all research variables before testing our hypotheses. Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations for all of the observed variables. As hypothesized, active SNS use was positively associated with positive feedback, relational certainty, and life satisfaction. Positive feedback was positively associated with relational certainty and life satisfaction. Relational certainty was positively associated with life satisfaction. Age was negatively associated with relational certainty. The independent t-tests indicated that all the variables in the present study showed significant gender differences (Active SNS use: t = −3.403, df = 740, p < 0.01; Positive feedback: t = −3.219, df = 740, p < 0.01; Relational certainty: t = −3.422, df = 740, p < 0.01; Life satisfaction: t = −2.344, df = 740, p < 0.05).

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and interrelations among all of the observed variables
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Testing for the Proposed Model

Before testing the proposed sequential mediation model, we used SPSS 23.0 to test the total effect of Active SNS use on life satisfaction. The results showed that active SNS use had a positive effect on life satisfaction (R = 0.262, R2 = 0.069, F = 54.451, β = 0.249, t = 7.379, p < 0.001) (Table 2).

Table 2 Regression results for the chain mediating effect
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To test the proposed sequential mediation model, we used Amos 21.0 to perform structural equation modeling. Given that all the variables in the present study showed significant gender differences, we took gender as a control variable into the structural equation model. Besides, owing to the significant negative correlation between age and relational certainty, age served as a control variable in our regression model. The path diagram of the structural model is demonstrated in Fig. 1. The model fit indices demonstrated that the model was a good fit (χ2(4) = 11.950, χ2/df = 2.987, RMSEA = 0.052, AGFI = 0.972, NFI = 0.983, IFI = 0.989, TLI = 0.957, CFI = 0.989). However, the competition model in which life satisfaction served as the predictor of positive feedback, relational certainty and active SNS use was not as good as the proposed one (χ2(4) = 90.427, χ2/df = 22.607, RMSEA = 0.1.71, AGFI = 0.804, NFI = 0.873, IFI = 0.878, TLI = 0.534, CFI = 0.876).

Fig. 1
figure 1

The sequential mediating model

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As shown in Fig. 1, when we put the mediation variables (positive feedback and relational certainty) in the regression equation of life satisfaction to active SNS use, the direct link between active SNS use and life satisfaction became insignificant. Active social networking site use was significantly associated with increases in positive feedback (β = 0.52, p < 0.001), which in turn had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction (β = 0.21, p < 0.001). These results indicated that active social networking site use could affect life satisfaction through the mediating role of positive feedback. Hypothesis 1 was supported. Besides, active social networking site use was also significantly associated with increases in relational certainty (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), which in turn had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction (β = 0.45, p < 0.001). These results indicated that relational certainty could also mediate the relationship between active SNS use and life satisfaction. Hypothesis 2 was supported. Moreover, the prediction of positive feedback on relational certainty was significant (β = 0.19, p < 0.001). These results indicated that active social networking site use could also affect life satisfaction through the sequential mediating roles of positive feedback and relational certainty. Hypothesis 3 was supported.

Furthermore, to test the significance of the indirect effect, we used the SPSS macro PROCESS (http://www.afhayes.com) suggested by Hayes (2013) to estimate the 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals of these indirect effects. The results showed that these three mediating effects were all statistically significant as 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals of these indirect effects did not include zero. Moreover, we calculated the effect size of each mediating effect by dividing the mediating effect by the total effect of active SNS use on life satisfaction separately. The effect size of the mediating effect of positive feedback was 45.13%, while the effect size of sequential mediating effect of positive feedback and relational certainty was 17.87%, and the effect size of the mediating effect of relational certainty was 26.62%.

Discussion

With the popularity of mobile Internet terminals such as smart mobile phone, social networking sites, as important tools for adolescents to communicate with each other, have a higher penetration rate among adolescents (CNNIC 2014). Given the prevalence of SNSs, a growing number of studies drew attention to the potential effect of SNSs on adolescents’ mental health. Most of these studies, however, concerned SNS use as a new potential risk factor for the emergence of psychological problems, such as depressive symptoms. Fewer studies revealed the potential defensive effect of SNSs for adolescents to develop a higher life satisfaction under certain conditions. Therefore, the present study was aimed to extend our understanding about how SNS use affected adolescents’ life satisfaction positively by highlighting the effects of active SNS use, positive feedback and relational certainty. Specifically, a sequential mediation model was tested to examine the direct effect of active SNS use on adolescents’ life satisfaction, as well as the indirect effects of positive feedback and relational certainty. The results were in favor of the four hypothesized effects: (1) the direct effect of active SNS use on life satisfaction; (2) active SNS use → positive feedback → life satisfaction; (3) active SNS use → relational certainty → life satisfaction; (4) active SNS use → positive feedback → relational certainty → life satisfaction. The findings showed that positive feedback brought by active SNS use could not only affect adolescents’ life satisfaction directly, but also could improve adolescents’ life satisfaction through the mediating role of relational certainty. In general, these results offer additional theoretical implications of hyperpersonal communication theory and uncertainty reduction theory to extend our understanding about how active SNS use affects adolescents’ life satisfaction.

Consistent with our hypothesis, the present study found that active SNS use had positive effect on life satisfaction. The results offer empirical evidence to the notion that people who use SNSs actively are more likely to experience a positive cognitive judgment of their life as a whole. Reinecke and Trepte (2014) suggested that self-presentation on SNSs had a positive longitudinal effect on life satisfaction.

In accordance with earlier study indicating the mediating effect of positive feedback between active SNS use and social capital (Liu and Brown 2014), the present study found that positive feedback was an essential factor that mediated the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction. This implies that positive feedback, as important social resource of people in Internet era, has positive significance for adolescents to maintain high life satisfaction. Previous study suggested that self-disclosure on SNSs could bring more positive comments and likes, which is the main form of positive feedback (Liu and Brown 2014; Walters and Horton 2015). Positive feedback, as a prominent source of social support for many adolescents, could lead to positive social outcomes, such as higher self-esteem and well-being, and lower depressive symptoms (Lin et al. 2016). We went one step further to prove that active SNS use has a positive effect on positive feedback, which would in turn lead to higher life satisfaction. Social networking sites, as communication platform for acquaintances, encourage adolescents not only to present themselves honestly, but also to present themselves positively by beautifying, grooming what they share, or selectively present positive content (Forest and Wood 2012). This will enhance adolescents’ frequency of getting positive feedback from friends (Forest and Wood 2012; Liu and Brown 2014). The positive feedback from friends could be feelings of being accepted and trusted. Therefore, positive feedback will mediate the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction.

Furthermore, the present study found that relational certainty could mediate the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction. This finding lends support to the notion that people who experience higher relational certainty are more likely to have higher life satisfaction. This result can be supported by the positive association among relational certainty, friendship quality and life satisfaction in previous studies (Knobloch and Knobloch-Fedders 2010; Raboteg-Saric and Sakic 2014). Studies have suggested that SNSs or mobile phone - mediated communication was associated with increases in relational certainty (Antheunis et al. 2010; Jin and Pena 2010). And social networking sites, as open platforms for users to interact with each other, usually encourage users to disclose a great deal of information about themselves (Burke et al. 2011). Consequently, it is plausible that the other users could use this information to get acquainted with the target person and reduce their relational uncertainty (Antheunis et al. 2010). In addition, relational certainty was an important indicator of relationship quality, which had a positive effect on life satisfaction (Kang et al. 2003; Weigel et al. 2011). Therefore, active SNS use could affect adolescents’ life satisfaction through the mediating effect of relational certainty.

The most important finding of the current study is that positive feedback and relational certainty could play sequential mediating roles in the relation between active SNS use and life satisfaction. This result indicated that the mediating roles of positive feedback and relational certainty were not mutually independent. Positive feedback brought by active SNS use could not only promote adolescents’ life satisfaction directly, but also improve life satisfaction through enhancing their relational certainty. SNS users who perceive the information from the other users as positive may experience an increased level of relational certainty, which may result in higher life satisfaction.

The sequential mediation finding could be explained by social penetration theory. According to social penetration theory, active SNS use is a process of exchanging social information, such as by sharing photos and updating one’s status, and then getting positive feedback from other users (Park et al. 2011). In this gradual process of social penetration, SNS users could get to know each other better, reduce their relational uncertainty, and improve their relationship quality. Uncertainty reduction theory also points to the possibility that the important ways for individuals to proactively reduce relational uncertainty and improve relationship quality are self-disclosure and getting feedback (Antheunis et al. 2010). The quality of interpersonal relationships is an important guarantee for improving life satisfaction (Kang et al. 2003). Therefore, active SNS use could improve one’s life satisfaction through the sequential mediating roles of positive feedback and relational certainty. In other words, positive feedback resulting from active SNS use could improve one’s life satisfaction by reducing their relation uncertainty.

Limitations and Implications

A limitation of this research is that we can’t ascertain the causal directions among active SNS use, positive feedback, relational certainty, and life satisfaction. Future studies should consider adopting longitudinal designs, with which it is possible to monitor changes in positive feedback, relational certainty and life satisfaction after active SNS use. Besides, testing of this model was conducted among Chinese middle and high school students from two major cities in the southern part of China, so we are not certain how well our results would generalize to college students, wage-earners and other groups under different cultural backgrounds. Future research is therefore needed to explore the issue in different groups under different cultural backgrounds, revealing the role of potential cultural or group differences by cross-cultural study. In addition, since both the effect size of sequential mediating effect of positive feedback and relational certainty and the effect size of the mediating effect of relational certainty were relatively low, the applicability of these results should be cautious.

With the development of social technologies, including cell phones, text messaging, and SNSs, adolescents’ social environments are increasingly dependent on new mass media. The current study highlights the potential role of positive feedback and relational certainty to understand the impact of active SNS use on adolescents’ life satisfaction. Confronted with the state of gradual separation from their parents and the demand of expanding their social networks (Sherman et al. 2016), adolescents are more likely to face the relational uncertainty, which may result in social anxiety and other social and emotional adaptation problems. Social networking sites, as open platforms for users to interact with each other, usually encourage users to disclose a great deal of information about them. Adolescents could not only obtain positive feedback through posting photos or other personal information, but also use this information to get acquainted with a certain person and reduce relational uncertainty. Consequently, it is plausible that adolescents could improve their life satisfaction through using SNSs actively.