Abstract
Recent technological developments (e.g., platforms such as OnlyFans) have enabled a new kind of online sex work, wherein sex workers can offer both asynchronous content (e.g., photos, videos) and live content (e.g., webcam shows, chats) to either individual customers or whole groups of followers who pay for exclusive content. Though there is significant research on the stigma faced by sex workers writ large, it is unclear the extent to which online sex workers’ experiences mirror those of in-person sex workers, given the precipitous rise of online sex work in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this qualitative study aimed to investigate online sex workers’ experiences of stigma, including how stigma influences disclosure of sex work status. Fifteen participants based in the U.S. were interviewed, and themes were developed using thematic analysis. Three themes were identified, corresponding with findings regarding societal, interpersonal, and internalized stigma: ‘Persistent Judgment,’ ‘Coming out as a Sex Worker,’ and ‘Reflecting on Experiences of Shame.’ Participants reported navigating strict censorship on social media and often faced the misconception that online sex work was ‘easy money.’ However, every participant had disclosed their work to another person, creating a support system of some kind with people whom they could confide in and trust. Self-acceptance, as well as acceptance among friends and some family, could point towards changing attitudes. U.S. policy, however, is still overwhelmingly against sex work; policy changes will need to accompany these social changes for sex work to be truly destigmatized.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act of (2017). 18 USC 1 et seq. (2018). https://www.congress.gov/115/plaws/publ164/PLAW-115publ164.pdf.
Armstrong, L. (2022). The courage to ‘get naked’: Stigma, disclosure and lived experience in sex work research. Sexualities. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634607221122315
Bernstein, J. (2019). How OnlyFans changed sex work forever. The New York Times.https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/09/style/onlyfans-porn-stars.html.
Blanchette, T., Da Silva, A. P., & Camargo, G. (2021). I will not be Dona Maria: Rethinking exploitation and objectification in the context of work and sex work. Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10060204
Blunt, D., & Wolf, A. (2020). Erased: The impact of FOSTA-SESTA and the removal of backpage on sex workers. Anti-trafficking Review,14, 117–121. https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.201220148
Blunt, D., Wolf, A., Coombs, E., Mullin, S. (2020) Posting into the void: Studying the impact of shadow banning on sex workers and activists.
Campbell, R., Sanders, T., Scoular, J., Pitcher, J., & Cunningham, S. (2019). Risking safety and rights: Online sex work, crimes and ‘belended safety repertoires’. The British Journal of Sociology, 70, 1539–1560. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12493
Capous-Desyllas, M., & Loy, V. (2020). Navigating intersecting identities, self-representation, and relationships: A qualitative study with trans sex workers living and working in Los Angeles, CA. Sociological Inquiry,90, 339–370.
Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma interferes with mental health care. American Psychologist,59, 614–625.
Cunningham, S., & Kendall, T. D. (2011). Prostitution 2.0: The changing face of sex work. Journal of Urban Economics,69(3), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2010.12.001
Döring, N. M. (2009). The internet’s impact on sexuality: A critical review of 15 years of research. Computers in Human Behavior,25, 1089–1101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.003
Easterbrook-Smith, G. (2022). OnlyFans as gig-economy work: A nexus of precarity and stigma. Porn Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/23268743.2022.2096682
Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,5(1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500107
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice-Hall.
Grittner, A. L., & Walsh, C. A. (2020). The role of social stigma in the lives of female-identified sex workers: A scoping review. Sexuality & Culture,24, 1653–1682.
Hamilton, V., Sonegi, A., McDonald, A., & Redmiles, E. M. (2023). “Nudes? Should I charge for these?”: Motivations of new sexual content creators on OnlyFans. In CHI’23: Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Article No. 666, 1–14.
Hughes, E. C. (1958). Men and their work. Free Press.
Jones, A. (2016). I get paid to have orgasms: Adult webcam models’ negotiation of pleasure and danger. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society,42(1), 227–256. https://doi.org/10.1086/686758
Koken, J. A. (2012). Independent female escort’s strategies for coping with sex work related stigma. Sexuality & Culture,16, 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-011-9120-3
López, C. (2020). People are turning to OnlyFans to earn money after losing their jobs during the pandemic Insider. https://www.insider.com/people-are-creating-onlyfans-accounts-after-losing-jobs-during-pandemic-2020-6
MacPhail, C., Scott, J., & Minichiello, V. (2015). Technology, normalisation and male sex work. Culture Health & Sexuality,17(4), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2014.951396
Martins, S. E., King, T. K., Jackson, T. E., Ramsey, L. R., Gomes, N., & Stutz, C. (2023). I’m not just made for men: Managing misogyny in online sex work. Feminism & Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/09593535231184718
Mavin, S., & Grandy, G. (2013). Doing gender well and differently in dirty work: The case of exotic dancing. Gender Work and Organization,20(3), 232–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2011.00567.x
Nayar, K. I. (2017). Sweetening the deal: Dating for compensation in the digital age. Journal of Gender Studies,26(3), 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1273101
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,90(5), 751–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
Pitcher, J. (2018). Intimate labour and the state: Contrasting policy discourses with the working experiences of indoor sex workers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy,16, 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0323-3
Ragins, B. R. (2008). Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review,33(1), 194–215. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2008.27752724
Reynolds, C. (2020). Craigslist is nothing more than an internet brothel: Sex work and sex trafficking in U.S. newspaper coverage of Craigslist sex forums. The Journal of Sex Research,58(6), 681–693. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1786662
Romano, A. (2018). A new law intended to curb sex trafficking threatens the future of the internet as we know it. Vox. https://www.vox.com/culture/2018/4/13/17172762/fosta-sesta-backpage-230-internet-freedom.
Sallmann, J. (2010). Living with stigma: Women’s experiences of prostitution and substance use. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work,25, 146–159.
Sprankle, E., Bloomquist, K., Butcher, C., Gleason, N., & Schaefer, Z. (2018). The role of sex work stigma in victim blaming and empathy of Sexual Assault survivors. Sexuality Research and Social Policy,15, 242–248.
Swords, J., Laing, M., & Cook, I. R. (2023). Platforms, sex work and their interconnectedness. Sexualities,26, 277–297.
Weitzer, R. (2018). Resistance to sex work stigma. Sexualities,21, 717–729.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
This study was funded by the Office of Undergraduate Research at Bridgewater State University. We have no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Stutz, C., Gomes, N., Ramsey, L.R. et al. “We Hate Sex Workers in this Country”: Stigma in Online Sex Work. Sexuality & Culture 28, 1085–1107 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-023-10168-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-023-10168-x