Abstract
As sexting continues to develop as a facet of sexual behavior among emerging adults, it is important to examine precursors and outcomes of such behavior. Current research is beginning to examine potential positive outcomes of consensual sexting in addition to negative consequences, as well as the motivations and contexts in which these consequences manifest. The purpose of the present study was to examine motivations for consensual sexting across gender and relationship status, as well as a range of perceived consequences of sexting in undergraduate emerging adults (N = 536; 77.2% women). With regards to motivations for sexting, men and those in committed romantic relationships more frequently reported that their sexting was incited by relational motives compared to women and those in casual sexual relationships. In examining consequences of sexting, women reported higher levels of punishment compared to men. A significant interaction was present between gender and relationship status, revealing that women in casual sexual relationships reported the highest amounts of negative consequences. These findings highlight the complexity of sexting behaviors and suggest the need for more nuanced research to accurately conceptualize and contextualize the motivations for and the consequences of sexting as a function of relationship status and gender.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahern, N. R., & Mechling, B. (2013). Sexting: Serious problems for youth. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 51(7), 22–30.
Angelides, S. (2013). “Technology, hormones, and stupidity”: The affective politics of teenage sexting. Sexualities, 16(5–6), 665–689. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460713487289
Benotsch, E. G., Snipes, D. J., Martin, A. M., & Bull, S. S. (2013). Sexting, substance use, and sexual risk behavior in young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.011
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2017). Sexting as the mirror on the wall: Body-esteem attribution, media models, and objectified-body consciousness. Journal of Adolescence, 61, 164–172.
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2019). Individual differences and developmental trends in sexting motivations. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00398-4
Bonilla, S., McGinley, M., & Lamb, S. (2020). Sexting, power, and patriarchy: Narratives of sexting from a college population. New Media and Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820909517
Branch, K., Hilinski-Rosick, C. M., Johnson, E., & Solano, G. (2017). Revenge porn victimization of college students in the United States: An exploratory analysis. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11(1).
Choi, H. J., Van Ouytsel, J., & Temple, J. R. (2016). Association between sexting and sexual coercion among female adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 53, 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.10.005
Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., Crossman, A. M., Maas, M. K., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2020). Sharing is not always caring: Understanding motivations and behavioural associations with sext dissemination. Computers in Human Behavior, 112, 106460.
Cornelius, T. L., Bell, K. M., Wyngarden, N., & Shorey, R. C. (2015). What happens after i hit? A qualitative analysis of the consequences of dating violence for female perpetrators. Violence and Victims, 30(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00058
Cornelius, T. L., Bell, K. M., Kistler, T., & Drouin, M. (2020). Consensual sexting among college students: The interplay of coercion and intimate partner aggression in perceived consequences of sexting. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197141
Currin, J. M., & Hubach, R. D. (2019). Motivations for nonuniversity-based adults who sext their relationship partners. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 45(4), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1526837
Currin, J. M., Pascarella, L. A., & Hubach, R. D. (2020). “To feel close when miles apart”: Qualitative analysis of motivations to sext in a relationship. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 35(2), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2020.1714024
Diliberto, G. M., & Mattey, E. (2009). Sexting: Just how much of a danger is it and what can school nurses do about it? NASN School Nurse, 24, 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1942602X09348652
Dir, A. L., Coskunpinar, A., Steiner, J. L., & Cyders, M. A. (2013). Understanding differences in sexting behaviors across gender, relationship status, and sexual identity, and the role of expectancies in sexting. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(8), 568–574. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0545
Dir, A. L., Riley, E. N., Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2018). Problematic alcohol use and sexting as risk factors for sexual assault among college women. Journal of American College Health, 66(7), 553–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1432622
Döring, N. (2014). Consensual sexting among adolescents: Risk prevention through abstinence education or safer sexting? Cyberpsychology. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2014-1-9
Drouin, M., & Tobin, E. (2014). Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults: Relations with attachment and sexual motivations. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 412–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.001
Drouin, M., Vogel, K. N., Surbey, A., & Stills, J. R. (2013). Let’s talk about sexting, baby: Computer-mediated sexual behaviors among young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(5), A25–A30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.030
Drouin, M., Ross, J., & Tobin, E. (2015). Sexting: A new, digital vehicle for intimate partner aggression? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001
Drouin, M., Coupe, M., & Temple, J. R. (2017). Is sexting good for your relationship? It depends …. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 749–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.018
Englander, E. (2012). Low risk associated with most teenage sexting : A study of 617 18-year-olds low risk associated with most teenage sexting : A study of 617 18-year-olds.
Galovan, A. M., Drouin, M., & McDaniel, B. T. (2018). Sexting profiles in the United States and Canada: Implications for individual and relationship well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.017
Garcia, J. R., & Reiber, C. (2008). Hook-up behavior: A biopsychosocial perspective. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2(4), 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099345
Gordon-Messer, D., Bauermeister, J. A., Grodzinski, A., & Zimmerman, M. (2013). Sexting among young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 301–306.
Harvey, C. A., Harvey, T. A., & Thompson, A. E. (2020). The “Sextual” double standard: An experimental examination of variations in judgments of men and women who engage in computer-mediated sexual communication. Sexuality and Culture, 24(3), 712–732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-019-09658-8
Hasinoff, A. A. (2013). Sexting as media production: Rethinking social media and sexuality. New Media and Society, 15(4), 449–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812459171
Hasinoff, A. A. (2014). Blaming sexualization for sexting. Girlhood Studies, 7(1), 102–120. https://doi.org/10.3167/ghs.2014.070108
Henry, N., & Flynn, A. (2019). Image-based sexual abuse: Online distribution channels and illicit communities of support. Violence Against Women, 25(16), 1932–1955.
Hudson, H. K., & Fetro, J. V. (2015). Sextual activity: Predictors of sexting behaviors and intentions to sext among selected undergraduate students. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 615–622.
Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2003). Sexual compliance: Gender, motivational, and relationship perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 40(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552169
Jewell, J., & Brown, C. (2013). Sexting, catcall, and butt slaps: How gender stereotypes and perceived group norms predict sexualized behavior. Sex Roles, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0320-1
Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., Clancy, E., Mellor, D. J., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2019). Sexting and psychological distress: The role of unwanted and coerced sexts. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(4), 237–242.
Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., & Mellor, D. J. (2014). Sexting prevalence and correlates: A systematic literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.10.007
Lee, M., & Crofts, T. (2015). Gender, pressure, coercion and pleasure: Untangling motivations for sexting between young people. British Journal of Criminology, 55(3), 454–473. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azu075
Lee, M., Crofts, T., McGovern, A., & Milivojevic, S. (2015). Sexting among young people: Perceptions and practices. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 508, 1–9.
Lenhart, A. (2009). Teens and Sexting.
Lippman, J. R., & Campbell, S. W. (2014). Damned if you do, damned If you don’t…If you’re a girl: Relational and normative contexts of adolescent sexting in the United States. Journal of Children and Media, 8(4), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2014.923009
Livingstone, S., & Anke, G. (2012). “Sexting”: The exchange of sexual messages online among European Youth. In S. Livingstone & L. Haddon (Eds.), Children, risk and safety on the internet: Research and policy challenges in comparative perspective (pp. 151–164). Policy Press.
Maas, M. K., Cary, K. M., Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., McCauley, H. L., & Temple, J. R. (2021). Slutpage use among U.S. college students: The secret and social platforms of image-based sexual abuse. Archives of Sexual Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-01920-1
Madigan, S., Ly, A., Rash, C. L., Van Ouytsel, J., & Temple, J. R. (2018). Prevalence of multiple forms of sexting behavior among youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(4), 327–335.
McGlynn, C., Rackley, E., & Houghton, R. (2017). Beyond ‘Revenge Porn’: The continuum of image-based sexual abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, 25(1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-017-9343-2
Medrano, J. L. J., Lopez Rosales, F., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018). Assessing the links of sexting, cybervictimization, depression, and suicidal ideation among university students. Archives of Suicide Research, 22(1), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2017.1304304
Mori, C., Cooke, J. E., Temple, J. R., Ly, A., Lu, Y., Anderson, N., Rash, C., & Madigan, S. (2020). The prevalence of sexting behaviors among emerging adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(4), 1103–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01656-4
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus [computer software]. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2018). Mplus User’s Guide (8th Ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Oriza, I. I. D., & Hanipraja, M. A. (2020). Sexting and sexual satisfaction on young adults in romantic relationship. Psychological Research on Urban Society, 3(1), 30–39.
Parker, T. S., Blackburn, K. M., Perry, M. S., & Hawks, J. M. (2013). Sexting as an intervention: Relationship satisfaction and motivation considerations. American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.635134
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2019). The nature and extent of sexting among a national sample of middle and high school students in the U.S. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(8), 2333–2343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1449-y
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2011). Gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviors: A review of meta-analytic results and large datasets. Journal of Sex Research, 48(2–3), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.551851
Pew Research Center. (2019). Mobile Fact Sheet. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/
Ricciardelli, R., & Adorjan, M. (2019). ‘If a girl’s photo gets sent around, that’s a way bigger deal than if a guy’s photo gets sent around’: Gender, sexting, and the teenage years. Journal of Gender Studies, 28(5), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2018.1560245
Ringrose, J., & Harvey, L. (2015). Boobs, back-off, six packs and bits: Mediated body parts, gendered reward, and sexual shame in teens’ sexting images. Continuum, 29(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2015.1022952
Ringrose, J., Harvey, L., Gill, R., & Livingstone, S. (2013). Teen girls, sexual double standards and “sexting”: Gendered value in digital image exchange. Feminist Theory, 14(3), 305–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700113499853
Roberts, S., & Ravn, S. (2020). Towards a sociological understanding of sexting as a social practice: A case study of university undergraduate men. Sociology, 54(2), 258–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038519864239
Sherrill, A. M., Wyngarden, N., & Bell, K. M. (2011). Expected outcomes of dating violence: Perspectives from female perpetrators. Partner Abuse, 2(4), 404–426. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.2.4.404
Silva, R. B. R., Teixeira, C. M., Vasconcelos-Raposo, J., & Bessa, M. (2016). Sexting: Adaptation of sexual behavior to modern technologies. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 747–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.036
Simon, W., & Gagnon, J. H. (2003). Sexual scripts: Origins, influences and changes. Qualitative Sociology, 26(4), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:QUAS.0000005053.99846.e5
Stasko, E. (2015). Sexting and intimate partner relationships among adults (Issue July). Drexel University.
Van Ouytsel, J., Punyanunt-Carter, N. M., Walrave, M., & Ponnet, K. (2020). Sexting within young adults’ dating and romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 55–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.007
Waling, A., Kerr, L., Bourne, A., Power, J., & Kehler, M. (2020). ‘It’s nice to be appreciated’: Understanding heterosexual men’s engagements with sexting and sharing dick pics. Sexualities. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460720947297
Weisskirch, R. S., & Delevi, R. (2011). “Sexting” and adult romantic attachment. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1697–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.008
Wentland, J. J., & Reissing, E. (2014). Casual sexual relationships: Identifying definitions for one night stands, booty calls, fuck buddies, and friends with benefits. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 23(3), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2744
Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). “Sexting” and its relation to sexual activity and sexual risk behavior in a national survey of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(6), 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.07.012
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Ethics approval
All of the procedures in the study involving human participants were consistent with the ethics standards and were approved by the institutional review board at Grand Valley State University.
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from every participant who completed the survey and participated in this study.
Consent for publication
Participants completed informed consent regarding the publishing of their data.
Human and animal rights
The procedures conducted in the study involving human participants were consistent with the ethics standards and were approved by the institutional review board at Grand Valley State University.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from every participant who completed the survey and participated in this study. Participants completed informed consent regarding the publishing of their data.
Data availability
The data are not publicly available but are available if requested from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Code availability
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Greer, K.M., Cary, K.M., Maas, M.K. et al. Differences Between Gender and Relationship Status in Motivations and Consequences of Consensual Sexting Among Emerging Adults. Sexuality & Culture 26, 1432–1451 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-09952-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-09952-y