Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air associated with particles PM2.5 in the Basque Country (Spain)

  • Published:
Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of persistent pollutants that are globally distributed. The objectives of this study are as follows: (1) to analyze the levels of the priority PAHs in the PM2.5 fraction of air: naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzoanthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzoanthracene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, indenepyrene, acenaphthylene, in two urban industrial areas of the province of Gipuzkoa (Basque Country, Spain), (2) to describe seasonal variation, and (3) to identify the source of PAHs. The ∑PAH concentrations ranged from 0.85 to 9.86 ng/m3. We found statistical differences between sites of sampling (p < 0.05), with higher values in Azpeitia. The median value of benzo(a)pyrene was 0.05 ng/m3 (ranged from 0.05 to 1.12 ng/m3), lower than the threshold set by the European legislation. Statistical differences were found (p < 0.05) in relation to seasonal variation, with the highest levels registered in winter and in autumn. PAH ratios and principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that probably the vehicular emissions are the predominant source of PAHs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

PAH:

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

IARC:

International Agency for Research on Cancer

FLA:

Fluoranthene

PYR:

Pyrene

CHR:

Chrysene

BaP:

Benzo(a)pyrene

BghiP:

Benzo(g,h,i)perylene

IcdP:

Indenepyrene

Phe:

Phenanthrene

BbF:

Benzo(b)fluoranthene

BkF:

Benzo(k)fluoranthene

NAH:

Naphthalene

DBA:

Dibenzoanthracene

Ant:

Anthracene

BA:

Benzoanthracene

FLU:

Fluorene

Ace:

Acenaphthene

Acy:

Acenaphthylene

ng:

Nanogram

PM2.5 :

Particulate matter 2.5

DL:

Detection limit

LOD:

Limit of detection

LOQ:

Limit of quantification

PCA:

Principal component analysis

ACN:

Acetonitrile

References

  • Agarwal T, Khillare PS, Shridhar V et al (2009) Pattern sources and toxic potential of PAHs in the agricultural soils of Delhi, India. J Hazard Mater 163:1033–1039

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akyüz M, Cabuk H (2008) Particle-associated polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Zonguldak, Turkey. Sci Total Environ 405:62–70

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arruti A, Fernández-Olmo I, Irabien Á (2012) Evaluation of the urban/rural particle-bound PAH and PCB levels in the northern Spain (Cantabria region). Environ Monit Assess 184:6513–6526

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertilsson S, Widenfalk A (2002) Photochemical degradation of PAHs in freshwaters and their impact on bacterial growth influence of water chemistry. Hydrobiologia 469:23–32

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Błaszczyk E, Rogula_Kozlowska W, Klejnowski K, Fulara I, Mielżyńska-Švach D (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound to outdoor and indoor airborne particles (PM2.5) and their mutagenicity and carcinogenicity in Silesian kindergartens, Poland. Air Qual Atmos Health 10:389–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boehm PD, Neff JM, Page DS (2007) Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in the waters of Prince William Sound after Exxon Valdez oil spill: 1989–2005. Mar Pollut Bull 54:339–367

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chahin A, Guiavarc’h YP, Dziurla MA et al (2008) 1-Hydroxypyrene in milk and urine as a bioindicator of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure of ruminants. J Agric Food Chem 56:1780–1786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De la Tore-Roche RJ, Lee WY, Campos-Díaz SI (2009) Soil-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in El Paso. J Hazard Mater 163:946–958

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Pieri S, Arruti A, Huremovic J et al (2014) PAHs in the urban air of Sarajevo: levels, sources, day/night variation, and human inhalation risk. Environ Monit Assess 186:1409–1419

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dickhut RM, Canuel EA, Gustafson KE, Liu K, Arzayus KM, Walker SE, Edgecombe G, Gaylor MO, MacDonald EH (2000) Automotive sources of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with particulate matter in the Chesapeake Bay region. Environ Sci Technol 34:4635–4640

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dvorská A, Lammel G, Klánová J (2011) Use of diagnostic ratios for studying source apportionment and reactivity of ambient polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons over Central Europe. Atmos Environ 45(2):420–427

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • European Environmental Agency (EEA). 2012. Air quality in Europe EEa, Report No4. European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register. (http://prtr.ec.europa.eu/#/home).

  • Gaspari L, Chang S, Santella RM et al (2003) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in human sperm as a marker of DNA damage and infertility. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 535:155–160

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo H, Lee SC, Ho KF et al (2003) Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air of Hong Kong. Atmos Environ 37:5307–5317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo Z, Lin T, Zhang G, Zheng M, Zhang Z, Hao Y, Fang M (2007) The sedimentary fluxes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Yangtze River Estuary coastal sea for the past century. Sci Total Environ 386:33–41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harris KA, Yunker MB, Dangerfield N, Ross PS (2011) Sediment-associated aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal British Columbia, Canada: concentrations, composition, and associated risks to protected sea otters. Environ Pollut 159:2665–2674

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassanvand MS, Naddafi K, Faridi S, Nabizadeh R, Sowlat MH, Momeniha F, Gholampour A, Arhami M, Kashani H, Zare A, Niazi S, Rastkari N, Nazmara S, Ghani M, Yunesian M (2015) Characterization of PAHs and metals in indoor/outdoor PM10/PM 2.5/PM1 in a retirement home and a school dormitory. Sci Total Environ 527-528:100–110

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Internatioanl Agency for Reaseach on Cancer (IARC) (n.d.) http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php

  • Iqbal J, Overton EB, Gisclair D (2008) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Louisiana Rivers and coastal environments: source fingerprinting and forensic analysis. Environ Forensic 9:63–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakovljević I, Pehnec G, Vađić V, Čačković M, Tomašić V, Doko Jelinić J (2018) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 particle fractions in an urban area. Air Qual Atmos Health 11:843–854

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiao L, Zheng GJ, Minh TB, Richardson B, Chen L, Zhang Y, Yeung LW, Lam JCW, Yang X, Lam PKS, Wong MH (2009) Persistent toxic substances in remote lake and coastal sediments from Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic: levels, sources and fluxes. Environ Pollut 157:1342–1351

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katsoyiannis A, Sweetman AJ, Jones KC (2011) PAH molecular diagnostic ratios applied to atmospheric sources: a critical evaluation using two decades of source inventory and air concentration data from the UK. Environ Sci Technol 45:8897–8906

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim KH, Jahan SA, Kabir E, Brown RJC (2013) A review of airbone polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human effects. Environ Int 60:71–80

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni P, Venkataraman C (2000) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai, India. Atmos Environ 34:2785–2790

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JY, Shin HJ, Bae SY, Kim YP, Kang C-H (2008) Seasonal variation of particle size distributions of PAHs at Seoul, Korea. Air Qual Atmos Health 1:57–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lertxundi A, Martínez MD, Ayerdi M et al (2010) Air quality in urban areas of Gipuzkoa (Spain). Gac Sant 24:187–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Zhang G, Li XD et al (2006) Source seasonality of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a subtropical city, Guangzhou, South China. Sci Total Environ 355:145–155

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Tao S, Liu W, Dou H, Liu Y, Zhao J, Little MG, Tian Z, Wang J, Wang L, Gao Y (2008) Seasonal and spatial occurrence and distribution of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rural and urban areas of the North Chinese Plain. Environ Pollut 156:651–656

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luo XJ, Chen SJ, Mai BX, Sheng GY, Fu JM, Zeng EY (2008) Distribution, source apportionment, and transport of PAHs in sediments from the Pearl River delta and the northern South China Sea. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 55:11–20

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martellini T, Giannoni M, Lepri L, Katsoyiannis A, Cincinelli A (2012) One year intensive PM 2.5 bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon monitoring in the area of Tuscany, Italy. Concentrations, source understanding and implications. Environ Pollut 164:252–258

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mohanraj R, Dhanakumar S, Solaraj G (2012) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound to PM 2.5 in urban Coimbatore, India with emphasis on source appointment. Sci World J 2012:980843–980851

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morillo E, Romero AS, Madrid L et al (2008) Characterization and sources of PAHs and potentially toxic metals in urban environments of Sevilla (Southern Spain). Water Air Soil Pollut 187:41–51

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nizzetto L, Lohmann R, Gioia R, Jahnke A, Temme C, Dachs J, Herckes P, Guardo AD, Jones KC (2008) PAHs in air and seawater along a North–South Atlantic transect: trends, processes and possible sources. Environ Sci Technol 42:1580–1585

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okuda T, Kumata H, Zakaria MP, Naraoka H, Ishiwatari R, Takada H (2002) Source identification of Malaysian atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons nearby forest fires using molecular and isotopic compositions. Atmos Environ 36:611–618

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ou S, Zheng J, Zheng J, Richardson BJ, Lam PKS (2004) Petroleum hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the surficial sediments of Xiamen Harbour and Yuan Dan Lake China. Chemosphere 56:107–112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park SS, Kim YJ, Kang CH (2002) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Seoul, Korea. Atmos Environ 36:2917–2924

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park SU, Kim JG, Jeong MJ, Song BJ (2011) Source identification of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in industrial complex using diagnostic ratios and multivariate factor analysis. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 60:576–589

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlova A, Ivanova R (2003) Determination of petroleum hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sludge from wastewater treatment basins. J Environ Monit 5:319–323

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindra K, Sohki R, Van Grieken R (2008) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos Environ 42:2895–2921

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzenbach RP, Gschwend PM, Imboden DM (2003) Environmental organic chemistry, 2nd edn. Wiley-Interscience, Totowa, NJ, pp 1197–1208

    Google Scholar 

  • Simick MF, Eisenreich SJ, Lioy PJ (1999) Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmos Environ 33:5071–5079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slezakova K, Pires JCM, Castro D, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Delerue-Matos C, Morais S, Pereira MC (2013) PAH air pollution at a Portuguese urban area: carcinogenic risk a and sources identification. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:3932–3945

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stark A, Abrajano T, Hellou J et al (2003) Molecular and isotopic characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon distribution and sources at the international segment of the St. Lawrence River. Org Geochem 34:225–237

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swietlik R, Kowalczyk D, Dojlido J (2002) Influence of selected physicochemical factors on the degradation of PAHs in water. Pol J Environ Stud 11:165–169

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tobiszewski M, Namiesnik J (2012) PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environ Pollut 162:110–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Lipzig MM, Commandeur JN, de Kanter FJ et al (2005) Bioactivation of dibrominated biphenyls by cytochrome P450 activity to metabolites with estrogenic activity and estrogen sulfotransferase inhibition capacity. Chem Res Toxicol 18:1691–1700

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vera CA, Lopez CJ, Santana AP et al (2003) Aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air particles in the city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Polycyclic Environ Int 29:475–480

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Villar-Vidal M, Lertxundi A, Martínez López de Dicastillo MD et al (2014) Air polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) associated with PM2.5 in North Cantabric coast turban environment. Chemosphere 99:233–238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wan-Li M, Yi-Fan HQ et al (2010) Seasonal variations of sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to a northeastern urban city, China. Chemosphere 79:441–447

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yan B, Abrajano TA, Bopp RF, Benedict LA, Chaky DA, Perry E, Song J, Keane DP (2006) Combined application of δ13C and molecular ratios in sediment cores for PAH source apportionment in the New York/New Jersey harbor complex. Org Geochem 37:674–687

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang HH, Chen CM (2004) Emission inventory and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere at a suburban area in Taiwan. Chemosphere 56:879–887

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yunker MB, Macdonald RW, Vingarzan R, Mitchell RH, Goyette D, Sylvestre S (2002) PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org Geochem 33:489–515

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zakaria MP, Takada H, Tsutsumi S, Ohno K, Yamada J, Kouno E, Kumata H (2002) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rivers and estuaries in Malaysia: a widespread input of petrogenic PAHs. Environ Sci Technol 36:1907–1918

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XL, Tao S, Liu WX et al (2005) Source diagnosis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons based on species ratios: a multimedia approach. Environ Sci Technol 39:9109–9114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou J, Wang T, Huang Y, Mao T, Zhong N (2005) Size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban and suburban sites of Bejing, China. Chemosphere 61:792–799

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We want to thank the town councils of the study areas for their help during the sampling time and especially to all the families that, voluntarily, took part in the INMA project (Environment and Childhood), for without their collaboration, it would not have been possible to carry out this study.

Funding

This study received financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Health and Consumer (Fund for Health Research Project PI06/0867 and Fund for Health Research Project PS09/00090), the Basque Government (Project 2009111069), and the town councils involved: Azpeitia, Azkoitia, Urretxu, Zumarraga, Legazpi and Beasain.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Preventive Medicine and Public Health Department, University of the Basque Country, Sarriena s/n, 48940, Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain

    Miren Begoña Zubero Oleagoitia & Aitana Lertxundi Manterola

  2. Institute of Health Research BIODONOSTIA, San Sebastián, Basque Country, Spain

    Miren Begoña Zubero Oleagoitia, Aitana Lertxundi Manterola, Jesús Ibarluzea Maurolagoitia, María Dolores Martínez López de Dicastillo, Jon Álvarez, Mikel Ayerdi Barandiaran, Amaia Irizar Loibide & Loreto Santa-Marina

  3. Spanish Consortium for Research and Public Health (CIBERESP), Carlos III health Institute, Madrid, Spain

    Aitana Lertxundi Manterola, Jesús Ibarluzea Maurolagoitia & Loreto Santa-Marina

  4. Subdirectorate of Public Health and Addictions of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government, San Sebastián, Spain

    Jesús Ibarluzea Maurolagoitia, Mikel Ayerdi Barandiaran & Loreto Santa-Marina

  5. Department of Environment, Territorial Planning and Housing of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government, San Sebastian, Spain

    María Dolores Martínez López de Dicastillo

  6. Public Health Normative Laboratory, Health Department, Basque Government, San Sebastian, Spain

    Jon Álvarez

Authors
  1. Miren Begoña Zubero Oleagoitia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aitana Lertxundi Manterola
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jesús Ibarluzea Maurolagoitia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. María Dolores Martínez López de Dicastillo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jon Álvarez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Mikel Ayerdi Barandiaran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Amaia Irizar Loibide
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Loreto Santa-Marina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Miren Begoña Zubero Oleagoitia.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Oleagoitia, M.B.Z., Manterola, A.L., Maurolagoitia, J.I. et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air associated with particles PM2.5 in the Basque Country (Spain). Air Qual Atmos Health 12, 107–114 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-018-0635-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-018-0635-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation