Abstract
São Paulo, a megacity in South America, is the largest consumer of fossil fuels in Brazil. The petrochemical products play an important role in the Brazilian economy and in the energy matrix. The compounds emitted when oil is used or processed can affect air quality and endanger human health. Particulate matter and gaseous samples were collected simultaneously in 2015 at an urban site highly impacted by anthropogenic activities, in the city of Santo André, São Paulo Metropolitan Area. Samples were analysed for elemental and organic carbon, hopanes, n-alkanes, alkenes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their oxygenated and nitrated derivatives. Among the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene presented the highest concentration in PUF and benzo(b)fluoranthene was dominant in PM. The carcinogenic equivalents for benzo(a)pyrene were 2.1 for PAH and 1.2 for nitro-PAH. The results showed that local activities as vehicular and industrial activities affected the air quality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abril GA, Diez SC, Pignata ML, Britch J (2016) Particulate matter concentrations originating from industrial and urban sources: validation of atmospheric dispersion modeling results. Atmos Pollut Res 7:180–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2015.08.009
Agudelo-Castañeda DM, Teixeira EC (2014) Seasonal changes, identification and source apportionment of PAH in PM1.0. Atmos Environ 96:186–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.07.030
Albinet A, Leoz-Garziandia E, Budzinski H et al (2008) Nitrated and oxygenated derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air of two French alpine valleys. Part 1: concentrations, sources and gas/particle partitioning. Atmos Environ 42:43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.10.009
Allen AG, da Rocha GO, Cardoso AA et al (2008) Atmospheric particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from road transport in southeast Brazil. Transp Res Part D Transp Environ 13:483–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.09.004
Alves CA, Vicente A, Monteiro C et al (2011) Emission of trace gases and organic components in smoke particles from a wildfire in a mixed-evergreen forest in Portugal. Sci Total Environ 409:1466–1475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.025
Alves CA, Oliveira CC, Martins N et al (2016) Road tunnel, roadside, and urban background measurements of aliphatic compounds in size-segregated particulate matter. Atmos Res 168:139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.09.007
Alves CA, Vicente AM, Custódio D et al (2017a) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives (nitro-PAHs, oxygenated PAHs, and azaarenes) in PM 2.5 from Southern European cities. Sci Total Environ 595:494–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.256
Alves CA, Vicente AM, Rocha S, Vasconcellos P (2017b) Hopanoid hydrocarbons in PM10 from road tunnels in São Paulo. Brazil Air Qual Atmos Heal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0462-3
Andreou G, Rapsomanikis S (2009) Origins of n-alkanes, carbonyl compounds and molecular biomarkers in atmospheric fine and coarse particles of Athens, Greece. Sci Total Environ 407:5750–5760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.019
Bezabeh DZ, Bamford HA, Schantz MM, Wise SA (2003) Determination of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel particulate-related standard reference materials by using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with negative ion chemical ionization. Anal Bioanal Chem 375: 381–388
Boonyatumanond R, Murakami M, Wattayakorn G et al (2007) Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dust in a tropical Asian mega-city, Bangkok, Thailand. Sci Total Environ 384:420–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.06.046
Brito J, Rizzo LV, Herckes P et al (2013) Physical–chemical characterisation of the particulate matter inside two road tunnels in the São Paulo Metropolitan Area. Atmos Chem Phys 13:12199–12213. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-12199-2013
Callén MS, Iturmendi A, López JM (2014) Source apportionment of atmospheric PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a PMF receptor model. Assessment of potential risk for human health. Environ Pollut 195:167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.08.025
Caumo SES, Claeys M, Maenhaut W et al (2016) Physicochemical characterization of winter PM10 aerosol impacted by sugarcane burning from São Paulo City, Brazil. Atmos Environ 145:272–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.09.046
Ciccioli P, Cecinato A, Brancaleoni E et al (1996) Formation and transport of 2-nitrofluoranthene and 2-nitropyrene of photochemical origin in the troposphere. J Geophys Res 101:19567. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD02118
Ciccioli P, Mannozzi M (2007) High-molecular-weight carbonyls and carboxylic acids. In: Koopman R (ed) Volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, vol 8. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, UK, pp 293–341
COFIPABC (2017) Committee for industrial promotion of petrochemical complex Avaliable in: http://www.cofipabc.com.br/index.asp?ID=16 (Accessed 02.02.2017)
Coronas MV, Horn RC, Ducatti A et al (2008) Mutagenic activity of airborne particulate matter in a petrochemical industrial area. Mutat Res 650:196–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2007.12.002
Crimmins BS, Baker JE (2006) Improved GC/MS methods for measuring hourly PAH and nitro-PAH concentrations in urban particulate matter. Atmos Environ 40:6764–6779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.078
Custódio D, Cerqueira M, Alves C et al (2016) A one-year record of carbonaceous components and major ions in aerosols from an urban kerbside location in Oporto, Portugal. Sci Total Environ 562:822–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.012
de Oliveira Alves N, Brito J, Caumo S et al (2015) Biomass burning in the Amazon region: aerosol source apportionment and associated health risk assessment. Atmos Environ 120:277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.059
de Oliveira Galvão MF, de Oliveira Alves N, Ferreira PA et al (2017) Biomass burning particles in the Brazilian Amazon region: mutagenic effects of nitro and oxy-PAHs and assessment of health risks. Environ Pollut:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.068
Farrington JW, Quinn JG (2015) “Unresolved complex mixture” (UCM): a brief history of the term and moving beyond it. Mar Pollut Bull 96:29–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.039
Godoi RHM, Godoi AFL, Gonçalves Junior SJ et al (2013) Healthy environment—indoor air quality of Brazilian elementary schools nearby petrochemical industry. Sci Total Environ 463–464:639–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.06.043
Hermosin B, Saiz-Jimenez C (2013) Polar compounds in diesel soot and historic monument surfaces. In book: Sci Technol Conserv Cult Heritage, pp 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1201/b15577-16
Huang B, Liu M, Bi X et al (2014) Phase distribution, sources and risk assessment of PAHs, NPAHs and OPAHs in a rural site of Pearl River Delta region, China. Atmos Pollut Res 5:210–218. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2014.026
IARC (2016) International Agency for Research on Cancer (2016). IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: vol. 109, Outdoor Air Pollution. IARC, Lyon
IBGE (2016) Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. http://cidades.ibge.gov.br/painel/painel.php?codmun=355030. Accessed 10 May 2016)
Jariyasopit N, McIntosh M, Zimmermann K et al (2014) Novel nitro-PAH formation from heterogeneous reactions of PAHs with NO2, NO3/N2O5, and OH radicals: prediction, laboratory studies, and mutagenicity. Environ Sci Technol 48:412–419. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4043808
Khairy MA, Lohmann R (2013) Source apportionment and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Alexandria, Egypt. Chemosphere 91:895–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.02.018
Křůmal K, Mikuska P, Vecera Z (2013) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and hopanes in PM1 aerosols in urban areas. Atmos Environ 67:27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.10.033
Medeiros PM, Caruso Bícego M (2004) Investigation of natural and anthropogenic hydrocarbon inputs in sediments using geochemical markers. I. Santos, SP-Brazil. Mar Pollut Bull 49:761–769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.06.001
Mikuska P, Krumal K, Vecera Z (2015) Characterization of organic compounds in the PM2.5 aerosols in winter in an industrial urban area. Atm Environ 105:97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.028
Nisbet ICT, LaGoy PK (1992) Toxic equivalency factor (TEF) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 16:290–300
Nocun MS, Schantz MM (2013) Determination of selected oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (oxy-PAHs) in diesel and air particulate matter standard reference materials (SRMs). Anal Bioanal Chem 405:5583–5593. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-013-6957-3
Omar NYMJ, Abas MRB, Ketuly KA, Tahir NM (2001) Heavy molecular-weight organic compounds in the atmosphere: the hopanes. Malays J Anal Sci 7:203–208
Oros DR, Simoneit BRT (2001) Identification and emission factors of molecular tracers in organic aerosols from biomass burning Part 1. Temperate climate conifers. Appl Geochem 16:513–1544
Pereira GM, De Oliveira Alves N, Caumo SES et al (2017) Chemical composition of aerosol in São Paulo, Brazil: influence of the transport of pollutants. Air Qual Atmos Heal 10:457–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-016-0437-9
Pio C, Cerqueira M, Harrison RM et al (2011) OC/EC ratio observations in Europe: re-thinking the approach for apportionment between primary and secondary organic carbon. Atmos Environ 45:6121–6132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.08.045
QUALAR 2017. Air quality data. Avaliable in: http://cetesb.sp.gov.br/ar/qualar/. Accessed May 1st, 2017
Ravindra K, Sokhi R, Van Grieken R (2008) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos Environ 42:2895–2921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.010
Ringuet J, Albinet A, Leoz-Garziandia E et al (2012) Reactivity of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs, NPAHs and OPAHs) adsorbed on natural aerosol particles exposed to atmospheric oxidants. Atmos Environ 61:15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.07.025
Sheesley RJ, Schauer JJ, Chowdhury Z et al (2003) Characterization of organic aerosols emitted from the combustion of biomass indigenous to south Asia. J Geophys Res [Atmospheres] 108:AAC 8/1–AAC 8/15. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002981
Simoneit BRT (1984) Organic matter of the troposphere-III. Characterization and sources of petroleum and pyrogenic residues in aerosols over the Western United States. Atmos Environ 18:51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(84)90228-2
Simoneit BRT, Abas M RB, Cass GR, Rogge WF, Mazurek MA, Standleys LJ, Hildemann M (1995) Natural organic compounds as tracers for biomass combustion in aerosols. https://doi.org/10.2172/102164
Sklorz M, Briedé J-J, Schnelle-Kreis J et al (2007) Concentration of oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygen free radical formation from urban particulate matter. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:1866–1869. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287390701457654
Souza DZ, Vasconcellos PC, Lee H et al (2014) Composition of PM2.5 and PM10 collected at urban sites in Brazil. Aerosol Air Qual Res 14:168–176. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2013.03.0071
Tobiszewski M, Namieśnik J (2012) PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environ Pollut 162:110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.10.025
Topinka J, Schwarz LR, Kiefer F et al (1998) DNA adduct formation in mammalian cell cultures by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitro-PAH in coke oven emission extract. Mutat Res 419:91–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1383-5718(98)00127-2
de Umbuzeiro A G, Franco A, Magalhães D et al (2008) A preliminary characterization of the mutagenicity of atmospheric particulate matter collected during sugar cane harvesting using the Salmonella/microsome microsuspension assay. Environ Mol Mutagen 49(4):249–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/em.20378
de Vasconcellos P C, Sanchez-Ccoyllo O, Balducci C et al (2008) Occurrence and concentration levels of nitro-PAH in the air of three Brazilian cities experiencing different emission impacts. Water Air Soil Pollut 190:87–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-007-9582-y
Vasconcellos PC, Souza DZ, Sanchez-Ccoyllo O et al (2010) Determination of anthropogenic and biogenic compounds on atmospheric aerosol collected in urban, biomass burning and forest areas in São Paulo, Brazil. Sci Total Environ 408:5836–5844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.08.012
Wei S, Huang B, Liu M et al (2012) Characterization of PM2.5-bound nitrated and oxygenated PAHs in two industrial sites of South China. Atmos Res 109–110:76–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.01.009
WHO (ed) (2000) World Health Organization. Air quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edn. WHO, Copenhagen
Wiedemann LMS (2006) Caracterização geoquímica de óleos de bacia sedimentar brasielira. Geochemical characterization of Brazilian sedimentary basin oils. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Cidade
Zaccarelli-Marino M, Saldiva André C, Singer J (2016) Overt primary hypothyroidism in an industrial area in São Paulo, Brazil: the impact of public disclosure. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13:1161. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111161
Zakaria MP, Horinouchi A, Tsutsumi S, Takada H, Tanabe S, Ismail A (2000) Oil pollution in the Straits of Malacca, Malaysia: application of molecular markers for source identification. Environ Sci Technol 34:1189–1196
Acknowledgements
The authors thank São Paulo State Environmental Agency (CETESB), São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, Project # 2016/23339-1), Brazilian Research Council (CNPq, Project # 830038/2003-5), University of Aveiro, National Institute of Science and Technology (INCT-Energia e Ambiente) and Public Ministry of São Paulo State.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Caumo, S., Vicente, A., Custódio, D. et al. Organic compounds in particulate and gaseous phase collected in the neighbourhood of an industrial complex in São Paulo (Brazil). Air Qual Atmos Health 11, 271–283 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0531-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0531-7