Abstract
Strong wind events frequently result in creating large areas of windthrow, which causes abrupt environmental changes. Bare soil surfaces within pits and root plates potentially expose soil to erosion. Absence of forest may alter the dynamics of water circulation. In this study we attempt to answer the question of whether extensive windthrows influence the magnitude of geomorphic processes in 6 small second- to third-order catchments with area ranging from 0.09 km2 to 0.8 km2. Three of the catchments were significantly affected by a windthrow which occurred in December 2013 in the Polish part of the Tatra Mountains, and the other three catchments were mostly forested and served as control catchments. We mapped the pits created by the windthrow and the linear scars created by salvage logging operations in search of any signs of erosion within them. We also mapped all post-windthrow landslides created in the windthrow-affected catchments. The impact of the windthrow on the fluvial system was investigated by measuring a set of channel characteristics and determining bedload transport intensity using painted tracers in all the windthrow-affected and control catchments. Both pits and linear scars created by harvesting tend to become overgrown by vegetation in the first several years after the windthrow. The only signs of erosion were observed in 10% of the pits located on convergent slopes. During the period from the windthrow event in 2013 until 2019, 5 very small (total area <100 m2) shallow landslides were created. The mean distance of bedload transport was similar (t-test, p=0.05) in most of the windthrow-affected and control catchments. The mapping of channels revealed many cases of root plates fallen into a channel and pits created near a channel. A significant amount of woody debris delivered into the channels influenced the activity of fluvial processes by creating alternating zones of erosion and accumulation.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
![](https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3Aplaceholder%2Fimages/placeholder-figure-springernature.png)
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Bac-Moszaszwili M, Burchart J, Głazek J, et al. (1979) Mapa geologiczna Tatr Polskich (Geological map of the Polish Tatra Mountains). Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warszawa. (In Polish)
Constantine JA, Pasternack GB, Johnson ML (2005) Logging effects on sediment flux observed in a pollen-based record of overbank deposition in a northern California catchment. Earth Surf Process Landf 30: 813–821. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1190
Constantine JA, Schelhaas M-J, Gabet E, et al. (2012) Limits of windthrow-driven hillslope sediment flux due to varying storm frequency and intensity. Geomorphology 175–176: 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.06.022
Dqbrowska K, Guzik M (Eds.) (2015) Atlas Tatr: przyroda nieozywiona = Atlas Tatier: neživá príroda = Atlas of the Tatra Mountains: abiotic nature. Zakopane, Tatrzański Park Narodowy. (In Polish)
Douglas I, Spencer T, Greer T, et al. (1992) The impact of selective commercial logging on stream hydrology, chemistry and sediment loads in the Ulu Segama rain forest, Sabah, Malaysia. Philos Trans Biol Sci 335: 397–406. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1992.0031
Fischer A, Lindner M, Abs C, et al. (2002) Vegetation dynamics in central european forest ecosystems (near-natural as well as managed) after storm events. Folia Geobotanica 37: 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0280318
Fredriksen RL (1970) Erosion and sedimentation following road construction and timber harvest on unstable soils in three small western Oregon watersheds. USDA Forest Serv Res Pap PNW-104, 15 pp.
Gabet EJ, Reichman OJ, Seabloom EW (2003) The effect of bioturbation on soil processes and sediment transport. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 31: 249–273. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314
Gallaway JM, Martin YE, Johnson EA (2009) Sediment transport due to tree root throw: integrating tree population dynamics, wildfire and geomorphic response. Earth Surf Process Landf 34: 1255–1269. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1813
Gerber W, Rickli Ch, Graf F (2002) Surface erosion in cleared and uncleared mountain windthrow sites. Forest Snow and Landscape Research 77: 109–116.
Gorczyca E, Krzemień K, Wrońska-Wałach D, et al. (2014) Significance of extreme hydro-geomorphological events in the transformation of mountain valleys (Northern Slopes of the Western Tatra Range, Carpathian Mountains, Poland). Catena 121: 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.05.004
Grant GE, Wolff AL (1991) Long-term patterns of sediment transport after timber harvest, Western Cascade Mountains, Oregon, USA. In: Sediment and Stream Water Quality in a Changing Environment: Trends and Explanation. IAHS 203.
Gregory KJ, Gurnell AM, Hill CT (1985) The permanence of debris dams related to river channel processes. Hydrol Sci J 30: 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626668509491000
Grizzel JD, Wolff N (1998) Occurrence of windthrow in forest buffer strips and its effect on small streams in northwest Washington. Northwest Science 72: 214–223.
Gurnell AM, Piégay H, Swanson FJ, et al. (2002) Large wood and fluvial processes. Freshw Biol 47: 601–619. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2427.2002.00916.x
Guthrie RH (2002) The effects of logging on frequency and distribution of landslides in three watersheds on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Geomorphology 43: 273–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(01)00138-6
Hancock GR, Evans KG, McDonnell J, et al. (2011). Ecohydrological controls on soil erosion and landscape Evolution. Ecohydrology 5(4): 478–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.241
Harr RD, Harper WC, Krygier JT, et al. (1975) Changes in storm hydrographs after road building and clear — cutting in the Oregon Coast Range. Wat Resour Res 11: 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR011i003p00436
Hasiński W (1971). Wpływ wiatrowałów karkonoskich na przebieg denudacji (Impact of windthrows in the Karkonosze Mountains on denudation). Czasopismo Geograficzne 41(3): 301–303. (In Polish)
Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (2019a) Digital Elevation Model. http://www.gugik.gov.pl/pzgik/zamowdane/numeryczny-model-terenu (Accessed on 10 January 2018)
Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (2019b) Orthophotomap. http://www.gugik.gov.pl/pzgik/zamow-dane/ortofotomapa (Accessed on 14 March 2018)
Hess M (1974) Piętra klimatyczne Tatr (Climatic zones in the Tatra Mountains). Czasopismo Geograficzne 45: 75–93. (In Polish)
Hewlett JD, Helvey JD (1970) Effects of forest clear-felling on the storm hydrograph. Wat Resour Res 6: 768–782. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR006i003p00768
Imaizumi F, Sidle R, Kamei R (2008) Effects of forest harvesting on the occurrence of landslides and debris flows in steep terrain of central Japan. Earth Surf Process Landf 33: 827–840. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1574
Jakob M (2000) The impacts of logging on landslide activity at Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. Catena 38: 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00078-8
Kaczka RJ (2003) The coarse woody debris dams in mountain streams of Central Europe, structure and distribution. Studia Geomorph Carp Balcanica 37: 111–127.
Karwan DL, Gravelle JA, Hubbart JA (2007) Effects of timber harvest on suspended sediment loads in Mica Creek, Idaho. Forest Sci 53: 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestscience/53.2.181
Keller EA, MacDonald A, Tally T, et al. (1995) Effects of large organic debris on channel morphology and sediment storage in selected tributaries of Redwood Creek, northwestern California. US Geol Surv Prof Paper 1454-P: 1–29.
Kotarba A (1970) The morphogenetic role of foehn wind in the Tatra Mts. Studia Geomorph Carp Balcanica 4: 171–188.
Kotarba A, Kaszowski L, Krzemień K (1987) High-mountain denudation system of the Polish Tatra Mountains. Geographical Studies, Special issue 3: 7–106.
Krzemień K (1992) The high mountain fluvial system the Western Tatra perspective. Geographia Polonica 60: 51–66.
Lewis J, Mori SR, Keppeler ET, et al. (2001) Impacts of logging on storm peak flows, flow volumes and suspended sediment loads in Caspar Creek, California. In: Wigmosta, M.S., Burges, S.J., (Eds.) Land use and watersheds: human influence on hydrology and geomorphology in urban and forest areas. Water Science and Application 2: 85–125. https://doi.org/10.1029/WS002p0085
Lyford WH, MacLean DW (1966) Mound and pit microrelief in relation to soil disturbance and tree distribution in New Brunswick, Canada. Harvard Forest Paper 15, pp. 1–18.
McDonald JI (2011) The effects of timber harvesting and windthrow on landslide initiation, southwestern Vancouver Island. M.Sc. thesis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada, 172 pp.
Megahan WF, King JG, Seyedbagheri KA (1995) Hydrologic and erosional responses of a granitic watershed to helicopter logging and broadcast burning. Forest Sci 41: 777–795. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestscience/41.4.777
Nakamura F, Swanson FJ (1993) Effects of coarse woody debris on morphology and sediment storage of a mountain stream system in western Oregon. Earth Surf Process Landf 18: 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290180104
Niedźwiedź T (1992). Climate of the Tatra Mountains. Mt Res Dev 12(2): 131–146. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673787
Niedźwiedź T (2003) Częstość występowania mas powietrznych w Polsce południowej w drugiej połowie XX wieku (Frequency of air-masses in southern Poland in the second half of 20th century). Prace Geogr 188: 65–74. (In Polish)
Osterkamp WR, Toy TJ, Lenart MT (2006) Development of partial rock veneers by root throw in a subalpine setting. Earth Surf Process Landf 31: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1222
Pawlik Ł (2012) Przekształcenia powierzchni stokowych w Sudetach w wyniku procesu saltacji wykrotowej (Disturbance of hillslope surfaces due to the tree uprooting process in the Sudetes Mts., SW Poland). Landf Anal 20: 79–94. (In Polish)
Pawlik Ł, Migoń P, Owczarek P, et al. (2013) Surface processes and interactions with forest vegetation on a steep mudstone slope, Stołowe Mountains, SW Poland. Catena 109: 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.03.011
Pawlik Ł, Migoń P, Szymanowski M (2016) Local- and regional-scale biomorphodynamics due to tree uprooting in semi-natural and manager montane forest of the Sudetes Mountains, Central Europe. Earth Surf Process Landf 41: 1250–1265. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3950
Phillips JD, Marion DA, Turkington AV (2008) Pedologic and geomorphic impacts of a tornado blowdown event in a mixed pine-hardwood forest. Catena 75: 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2008.07.004
Reid LM (1981) Sediment production from gravel-surfaced forest roads, Clearwater basin, Washington. In: Fisheries Research Institute Report. FRI-UW-8108, 247 pp.
Roberts B, Ward B, Rollerson T (2004) A comparison of landslide rates following helicopter and conventional cable-based clear-cut logging operations in the Southwest Coast Mountains of British Columbia. Geomorphology 61: 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.01.007
Roering JJ, Schmidt KM, Stock JD, et al. (2003) Shallow landsliding, root reinforcement, and the spatial distribution of trees in the Oregon Coast Range. Can Geotech J 40: 237–253. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-113
Skiba S (2002) Mapa gleb Tatrzanskiego Parku Narodowego (Soil map of the Tatra National Park). In: Borowiec, W., Kotarba, A., Kownacki, et al. (Eds.), Przemiany środowiska przyrodniczego Tatr. TPN-PTPNoZ, Kraków-Zakopane. pp 21–26. (In Polish)
Small TW, Schaetzl RJ, Brixie JM (1990) Redistribution and mixing of soil gravels by tree uprooting. Prof Geogr 42: 445–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1990.00445.x
Strzyżowski D, Fidelus J, Żelazny M (2016) Geomorphological changes within a hillslope caused by a windthrow event in the Tatra Mountains, Southern Poland. Geogr Ann Ser A Phys Geogr 98: 347–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoa.12141
Strzyżowski D, Fidelus-Orzechowska J, Żelazny M (2018) Sediment transport by uprooting in the forested part of the Tatra Mountains, southern Poland. Catena 160: 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.019
Swanson FJ, Dyrness CT (1975) Impact of clear-cutting and road construction on soil erosion by landslides in the western Cascade Range, Oregon. Geology 3: 393–396. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1975)3<393:IOCARC>2.0.CO;2
Thévenet A, Citterio A, Piégay H (1998). A new methodology for the assessment of large woody debris accumulations on highly modified rivers (example of two French piedmont rivers). Regulated Rivers: Research & Management: An International Journal Devoted to River Research and Management 14(6): 467–483.
Wallace JB, Webster JR, Eggert SL, et al. (2001). Large woody debris in a headwater stream: long — term legacies of forest disturbance. Int Rev Hydrobiol 86(4–5): 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1002/1522-2632(200107)86:4/5<501::AID-IROH501>3.0.CO;2-8
Wohlgemuth T, Kull P, Wüthrich H (2002) Disturbance of microsites and early tree regeneration after windthrow in Swiss mountain forests due to the winter storm Vivian 1990. For Snow Landsc Res 77: 17–47.
Wohlgemuth T, Schwitter R, Bebi P, et al. (2017) Post-windthrow management in protection forests of the Swiss Alps. Eur J Forest Res 136: 1029–1040. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-017-1031-x
Wright KA, Sendek KH, Rice RM, et al. (1990) Logging effects on streamflow: storm runoff at Caspar Creek in northwestern California. Wat Resour Res 26: 1657–1667. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR026i007p01657
Ziemer RR (1981) The role of vegetation in the stability of forested slopes. Proceedings of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations. XVII World Congress, 6–17 September 1981, Kyoto, Japan, vol. I. pp 297–308.
Acknowledgements
This research is part of the project “Impact of extensive windthrow areas on the dynamics of slope-fluvial system” funded by the National Science Centre, Poland (DS; grant No. UMO-2017/27/N/ST10/00802). Mapping scars created by wood transport in 2016 and recording water levels in 2018 were part of the project “Assessment of large-scale windthrow areas impact on hydrochemical regime and denudation of catchments located in mountain forests (Polish Tatra Mountains)” realized in 2016 (MŻ; grant No. K/KDU/000334) and 2018 (MŻ; grant No. K/KDU/000494), funded by the forest fund of the State Forests National Forest Holding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Strzyżowski, D., Gorczyca, E., Krzemień, K. et al. The intensity of slope and fluvial processes after a catastrophic windthrow event in small catchments in the Tatra Mountains. J. Mt. Sci. 18, 1405–1423 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6726-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6726-2