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Is the Influence of Religiosity on Attitudes and Behaviors Stronger in less Religious or more Religious Societies? A Review of Theories and Contradictory Evidence

Ist der Einfluss der Religiosität auf Einstellungen und Verhalten in säkularen oder religiösen Gesellschaften stärker? Ein Überblick über Theorien und widersprüchliche Ergebnisse

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Abstract

Cross-cultural studies of religion have shown that there is substantial variation in the effects of religiosity on moral and social outcomes across countries. Many authors have addressed the question of how the effects of individual religiosity depend on the religious context. The findings, however, are contradictory, casting doubts on the validity of results. The current paper reviews the existing research on how the religious context moderates the effects of individual religiosity. It reveals the limitations of existing studies, and these limitations might explain the contradictory findings. Most notably, authors tend to assume similar effects from all religions without discussing the possibility of the effects that they find being confounded with differences across denominations. Given the limited set of available comparative data, there is a high risk of selection bias because almost all the studies use data from the same limited number of international survey projects. Moreover, the operationalizations of religiosity and religious context do not sufficiently reflect the theoretical approaches. The paper gives recommendations to improve future research on how religious contexts shape the effects of individual religiosity.

Zusammenfassung

Die international vergleichende Religionsforschung hat eine erhebliche Variation in den Effekten von Religiosität auf moralische und soziale Einstellungen und Verhaltensweisen nachgewiesen. Viele Studien haben die Bedeutung der religiösen Kontexte für die Richtung und Stärke der Effekte von Religiosität auf verschiedene abhängige Variablen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studien sind jedoch widersprüchlich und lassen deshalb Zweifel an ihrer Validität aufkommen. Dieser Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über theoretische Ansätze und empirische Befunde aus der Forschung dazu, wie sich religiöse Kontexte auf die Effekte individueller Religiosität auswirken. Dabei zeigt sich, dass bestehende Studien Schwachstellen aufweisen, welche für die widersprüchlichen empirischen Befunde verantwortlich sein könnten. Insbesondere gibt es in der komparativen Sozialforschung die Tendenz, allen Religionen ähnliche Effekte zu unterstellen, ohne zu prüfen, ob möglicherweise konfessionelle Unterschiede vorliegen. Zudem besteht angesichts der kleinen Zahl von verfügbaren international vergleichenden Umfrageprogrammen das Risiko eines „selection bias“, weil fast alle Studien mit den wenigen gleichen Datensätzen arbeiten. Schließlich spiegeln die Operationalisierungen von Religiosität und religiösem Kontext die verwendeten theoretischen Ansätze häufig nicht ausreichend wider. Die Arbeit schließt mit Empfehlungen zur Verbesserung der zukünftigen Forschung darüber, wie religiöse Kontexte die Effekte individueller Religiosität beeinflussen.

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Notes

  1. In fact, secularization theory is a framework for explaining religious change at the context level. This paper, in contrast, reviews studies about the social consequences of variation in religious context for individual-level outcomes.

  2. An alternative method for estimating the interaction between context factors and individual-level attributes are fixed effects models using dummy variables for the context units. The effect of the context attitude on the individual-level outcome cannot be estimated in this case. But interaction effects (macro*micro variable) can be tested. This shortcoming might explain why fixed effects models have not been used in studies of religious context.

  3. The approach is naturally not limited to religious context variables. Other contextual moderators for individual religiosity can also be studied.

  4. Durkheim uses the word “moral community” as a synonym for “church.”

  5. The equation is only valid for predicted values. The variance components have to be added to the equation for observed values of the outcome.

  6. Verbakel and Jaspers (2010) do not expect the effect of religiosity to be stronger in religious countries, but rather in secular countries. The results are nevertheless consistent with the moral community thesis.

  7. Stavrova (2015) uses a somewhat different terminology, referring to cultural fit to denote that religious individuals conform to the cultural context, which is equivalent to the moral community thesis.

  8. More information about the data from the European Values Study are available from the project website, www.europeanvalues.eu.

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Siegers, P. Is the Influence of Religiosity on Attitudes and Behaviors Stronger in less Religious or more Religious Societies? A Review of Theories and Contradictory Evidence. Köln Z Soziol 71 (Suppl 1), 491–517 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-019-00610-0

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