Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Correlates of Transactional Sex and Violent Victimization among Men Who Inject Drugs in Los Angeles and San Francisco, California

  • Published:
Journal of Urban Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Men who inject drugs (MWID) and engage in transactional sex (i.e., receive money or drugs in exchange for sex) are vulnerable to HIV and violence. However, MWID who engage in transactional sex have been less studied than women. We examine factors associated with transactional sex among MWID in Los Angeles and San Francisco and whether transactional sex is associated with violent victimization. MWID were recruited using targeted sampling methods in 2011–2013 and completed surveys that covered demographics, drug use, HIV risk, violence, transactional sex, and other items. Multivariable logistic regression was used to (1) determine factors independently associated with transactional sex and (2) determine if transactional sex was independently associated with violence victimization in the last 6 months among MWID. An interaction term between income source and sexual identity was included in the transactional sex model. Of the 572 male PWID in the sample, 47 (8%) reported transactional sex in the past 6 months. Self-reported HIV infection was 7% for MWID who did not report transactional sex, 17% for MWID who reported transactional sex, and 24% for MWID who reported transactional sex and reported gay or bisexual identity. In multivariable analysis, transactional sex was positively associated with gay or bisexual identity (GB without illegal income adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 5.16; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.86–14.27; GB with illegal income AOR = 13.55, CI = 4.57–40.13), coerced sex in the last 12 months (AOR = 11.66, CI = 1.94–70.12), and violent victimization in the last 12 months (AOR = 2.31, CI = 1.13–4.75). Transactional sex was negatively associated with heroin injection (last 30 days) (AOR = 0.37; 95% CI = 0.18–0.78). Transactional sex was independently associated with violent victimization in the last 12 months (AOR = 2.04; 95% CI = 1.00–4.14) while controlling for confounders. MWID who engaged in transactional sex are at elevated risk for HIV and multiple forms of violent victimization. Interventions focused on this at-risk subpopulation are urgently needed and should include access to substance use disorder treatment, victimization services, and harm reduction services across the HIV care continuum.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Neaigus A, Reilly KH, Jenness SM, Hagan H, Wendel T, Gelpi-Acosta C. Dual HIV risk: receptive syringe sharing and unprotected sex among HIV-negative injection drug users in New York City. AIDS Behav. 2013;17(7):2501–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Strathdee SA, Sherman SG. The role of sexual transmission of HIV infection among injection and non-injection drug users. J Urban Health. 2003;80(3):iii7–iii14.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Bacon O, Lum P, Hahn J, et al. Commercial sex work and risk of HIV infection among young drug-injecting men who have sex with men in San Francisco. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(4):228–34. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.olq.0000204914.91923.ad.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kral AH, Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Gee L, Bacchetti P, Edlin BR. Sexual transmission of HIV-1 among injection drug users in San Francisco, USA: risk-factor analysis. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1397–401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Rondinelli AJ, Ouellet LJ, Strathdee SA, Latka MH, Hudson SM, Hagan H, et al. Young adult injection drug users in the United States continue to practice HIV risk behaviors. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;104(1–2):167–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.05.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Javanbakht M, Ragsdale A, Shoptaw S, Gorbach PM. Transactional sex among men who have sex with men: differences by substance use and HIV status. J Urban Health. 2018:1–13.

  7. Nerlander LM, Hess KL, Sionean C, et al. Exchange sex and HIV infection among men who have sex with men: 20 US cities. AIDS Behav. 2011;2016:1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Newman PA, Rhodes F, Weiss RE. Correlates of sex trading among drug-using men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(11):1998–2003.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Walters SM, Braksmajer A, Coston B, et al. A ayndemic model of exchange sex among HIV-positive men who have sex with men. Arch Sex Behav. 2020;49:1965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01628-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Walters SM, Rivera AV, Reilly KH, et al. Exchange sex among persons who inject drugs in the New York metropolitan area: the importance of local context, gender and sexual identity. AIDS Behav. 2018:1–15.

  11. Reilly KH, Neaigus A, Wendel T, Marshall DM IV, Hagan H. Correlates of selling sex among male injection drug users in New York City. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;144:78–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kuyper LM, Lampinen TM, Li K, et al. Factors associated with sex trade involvement among male participants in a prospective study of injection drug users. Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80(6):531–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.011106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Maslow CB, Friedman SR, Perlis TE, Rockwell R, Des Jarlais DC. Changes in HIV seroprevalence and related behaviors among male injection drug users who do and do not have sex with men: New York City, 1990-1999. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(3):382–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Mirzazadeh A, Evans JL, Hahn JA, et al. Continued transmission of HIV among young adults who inject drugs in San Francisco: still room for improvement. AIDS Behav. 2017:1–12.

  15. Kral AH. HIV prevalence and risk behaviors among men who have sex with men and inject drugs in San Francisco. J Urban Health. 2005;82(suppl_1):i43–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jti023.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Bluthenthal RN, Kral AH, Gee L, Lorvick J, Moore L, Seal K, et al. Trends in HIV seroprevalence and risk among gay and bisexual men who inject drugs in San Francisco, 1988 to 2000. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28(3):264–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bull SS, Piper P, Rietmeijer C. Men who have sex with men and also inject drugs-profiles of risk related to the synergy of sex and drug injection behaviors. J Homosex. 2002;42(3):31–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Scheim AI, Nosova E, Knight R, Hayashi K, Kerr T. HIV incidence among men who have sex with men and inject drugs in a Canadian setting. AIDS Behav. 2018;22(12):3957–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Lamb S, Kral AH, Dominguez-Gonzalez K, Wenger LD, Bluthenthal RN. Peer-to-peer injection: demographic, drug use, and injection-related risk factors. Int J Drug Policy. 2018;61:44–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Singer M, Bulled N, Ostrach B, Mendenhall E. Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. Lancet. 2017;389(10072):941–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Wright ER, Carnes N, Colón-Diaz M. Understanding the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States—the role of syndemics in shaping the public’s health. Understanding the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States. Springer. 2016:1–17.

  22. Singer M. A dose of drugs, a touch of violence, a case of AIDS: conceptualizing the SAVA syndemic. Free Inq Creat Soc. 1996;24(2):99–110.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Parsons JT, Millar BM, Moody RL, Starks TJ, Rendina HJ, Grov C. Syndemic conditions and HIV transmission risk behavior among HIV-negative gay and bisexual men in a US national sample. Health Psychol. 2017;36(7):695–703.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Parsons JT, Grov C, Golub SA. Sexual compulsivity, co-occurring psychosocial health problems, and HIV risk among gay and bisexual men: further evidence of a syndemic. Am J Public Health. Jan 2012;102(1):156–62. https://doi.org/10.2105/Ajph.2011.300284.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Parsons JT, Rendina HJ, Moody RL, Ventuneac A, Grov C. Syndemic production and sexual compulsivity/hypersexuality in highly sexually active gay and bisexual men: further evidence for a three group conceptualization. Arch Sex Behav. 2015;44(7):1903–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Buller AM, Devries KM, Howard LM, Bacchus LJ. Associations between intimate partner violence and health among men who have sex with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2014;11(3):e1001609. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001609.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Houston E, McKirnan DJ. Intimate partner abuse among gay and bisexual men: Risk correlates and health outcomes. J Urban Health. 2007;84(5):681–90.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Stults CB, Javdani S, Greenbaum CA, Kapadia F, Halkitis PN. Intimate partner violence and substance use risk among young men who have sex with men: The P18 cohort study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;154:54–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Stall R, Mills TC, Williamson J, et al. Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 02/03/accepted. 2003;93(6):939–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Mustanski B, Garofalo R, Herrick A, Donenberg G. Psychosocial health problems increase risk for HIV among urban young men who have sex with men: preliminary evidence of a syndemic in need of attention. Ann Behav Med. Aug 2007;34(1):37–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/08836610701495268.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Mustanski B, Phillips G 2nd, Ryan DT, Swann G, Kuhns L, Garofalo R. Prospective effects of a syndemic on HIV and STI incidence and risk behaviors in a cohort of young men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav. Mar 2017;21(3):845–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1607-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Dyer TP, Shoptaw S, Guadamuz TE, et al. Application of syndemic theory to Black men who have sex with men in the multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. J Urban Health. 03/02 2012. 89(4):697–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9674-x.

  33. Biello KB, Colby D, Closson E, Mimiaga MJ. The syndemic condition of psychosocial problems and HIV risk among male sex workers in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(7):1264–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0632-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Williams JE, Dangerfield DT, Kral AH, Wenger LD, Bluthenthal RN. Correlates of sexual coercion among people who inject drugs (PWID) in Los Angeles and San Francisco, CA. J Urban Health. 2018:1–8.

  35. Marshall BD, Fairbairn N, Li K, Wood E, Kerr T. Physical violence among a prospective cohort of injection drug users: a gender-focused approach. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;97(3):237–46.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Richardson LA, Long C, DeBeck K, Nguyen P, Milloy MJS, Wood E, et al. Socioeconomic marginalisation in the structural production of vulnerability to violence among people who use illicit drugs. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2015;69(7):686–92.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Braitstein P, Li K, Tyndall M, Spittal P, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schilder A, et al. Sexual violence among a cohort of injection drug users. Soc Sci Med. 2003;57(3):561–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Watters JK, Biernacki P. Targeted sampling: options for the study of hidden populations. SocProbs. 1989;36:416.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Kral AH, Malekinejad M, Vaudrey J, Martinez AN, Lorvick J, McFarland W, et al. Comparing respondent-driven sampling and targeted sampling methods of recruiting injection drug users in San Francisco. J Urban Health. 2010;87(5):839–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Bluthenthal RN, Watters JK. Multimethod research from targeted sampling to HIV risk environments. Qual Methods Drug Abuse HIV Res1995:212.

  41. Lopez AM, Bourgois P, Wenger LD, Lorvick J, Martinez AN, Kral AH. Interdisciplinary mixed methods research with structurally vulnerable populations: case studies of injection drug users in San Francisco. Int J Drug Policy. 2013;24(2):101–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Cagle H, Fisher D, Senter T, Thurmond R, Kastar A. Classifying skin lesions of injection drug users: a method for corroborating disease risk. DHHS Pub. No.(SMA) 02. Rockville, MD; 2002.

  43. Bluthenthal RN, Simpson K, Ceasar RC, Zhao J, Wenger L, Kral AH. Opioid withdrawal symptoms, frequency, and pain characteristics as correlates of health risk among people who inject drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;107932

  44. Mateu-Gelabert P, Sandoval M, Meylakhs P, Wendel T, Friedman SR. Strategies to avoid opiate withdrawal: implications for HCV and HIV risks. Int J Drug Policy. 2010;21(3):179–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.08.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Hirshfield S, Schrimshaw EW, Stall RD, Margolis AD, Downing MJ Jr, Chiasson MA. Drug use, sexual risk, and syndemic production among men who have sex with men who engage in group sexual encounters. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(9):1849–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Tsai AC, Venkataramani AS. Syndemics and health disparities: a methodological note. AIDS Behav. 2016;20(2):423–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1260-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Tsai AC, Burns BF. Syndemics of psychosocial problems and HIV risk: a systematic review of empirical tests of the disease interaction concept. Soc Sci Med. 2015;139:26–35.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Pathela P, Blank S, Sell RL, Schillinger JA. The importance of both sexual behavior and identity. Am J Public Health. 2006;96(5):765.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Wright ER, Perry BL. Sexual identity distress, social support, and the health of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. J Homosex. 2006;51(1):81–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Mayer KH, Bradford JB, Makadon HJ, Stall R, Goldhammer H, Landers S. Sexual and gender minority health: what we know and what needs to be done. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(6):989–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Safren SA, Blashill AJ, O'Cleirigh CM. Promoting the sexual health of MSM in the context of comorbid mental health problems. AIDS Behav. 2011;15(Suppl 1(1)):S30–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-9898-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Hatzenbuehler ML, Bellatorre A, Lee Y, Finch BK, Muennig P, Fiscella K. Structural stigma and all-cause mortality in sexual minority populations. Soc Sci Med. 2014;103:33–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Corrigan PW, Kuwabara SA, O'Shaughnessy J. The public stigma of mental illness and drug addiction: findings from a stratified random sample. J Soc Work. 2009;9(2):139–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Phillips LA, Shaw A. Substance use more stigmatized than smoking and obesity. J Subst Abus. 2013;18(4):247–53.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Latkin CA, Gicquelais RE, Clyde C, Dayton L, Davey-Rothwell M, German D, et al. Stigma and drug use settings as correlates of self-reported, non-fatal overdose among people who use drugs in Baltimore, Maryland. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2019;68:86–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Van Boekel LC, Brouwers EP, Van Weeghel J, Garretsen HF. Stigma among health professionals towards patients with substance use disorders and its consequences for healthcare delivery: systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;131(1):23–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Biancarelli DL, Biello KB, Childs E, Drainoni M, Salhaney P, Edeza A, et al. Strategies used by people who inject drugs to avoid stigma in healthcare settings. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;198:80–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Tilcsik A. Pride and prejudice: employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States. Am J Sociol. 2011;117(2):586–626. https://doi.org/10.1086/661653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Smith SS, Broege NC. Searching for work with a criminal record. UC Berkeley: Institute for Research on Labor and Employment; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Richardson L, Sherman SG, Kerr T. Employment amongst people who use drugs: a new arena for research and intervention? Int J Drug Policy. 2012;23(1):3–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Friedman MR, Dodge BM. The role of syndemic in explaining health disparities among bisexual men: a blueprint for a theoretically informed perspective. Understanding the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States. Springer. 2016:71–98.

  62. Taussig JA, Weinstein B, Burris S, Jones TS. Syringe laws and pharmacy regulations are structural constraints on HIV prevention in the US. Aids. 2000;14:S47–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rhodes F, Deren S, Wood MM, Shedlin MG, Carlson RG, Lambert EY, et al. Understanding HIV risks of chronic drug-using men who have sex with men. AIDS Care. 1999;11(6):629–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540129947550.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Friedman SR. Sociopharmacology of drug use: initial thoughts. Int J Drug Policy. 2002;13(5):341–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Platt L, Grenfell P, Meiksin R, Elmes J, Sherman SG, Sanders T, et al. Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Med. 2018;15(12):e1002680.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Lejuez CW, Bornovalova MA, Daughters SB, Curtin JJ. Differences in impulsivity and sexual risk behavior among inner-city crack/cocaine users and heroin users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;77(2):169–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.08.013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Bull SS, Piper P, Rietmeijer C. Men who have sex with men and also inject drugs-profiles of risk related to the synergy of sex and drug injection behaviors. J Homosex. 2002;42(3):31–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Debeck K, Shannon K, Wood E, Li K, Montaner J, Kerr T. Income generating activities of people who inject drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;91(1):50–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.05.003.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Braksmajer A, Walters SM, Crean HF, Stephenson R, McMahon JM. Pre-exposure prophylaxis use among men who have sex with men experiencing partner violence. AIDS Behav. 2020:1–8.

  70. Reid RJ, Bonomi AE, Rivara FP, Anderson ML, Fishman PA, Carrell DS, et al. Intimate Partner Violence Among Men. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34(6):478–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.01.029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Argento E, Strathdee SA, Goldenberg S, Braschel M, Montaner J, Shannon K. Violence, trauma and living with HIV: longitudinal predictors of initiating crystal methamphetamine injection among sex workers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;175:198–204.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Nerlander LM, Hoots BE, Bradley H, Broz D, Thorson A, Paz-Bailey G, et al. HIV infection among MSM who inject methamphetamine in 8 US cities. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;190:216–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Hoenigl M, Chaillon A, Moore DJ, Morris SR, Smith DM, Little SJ. Clear Links between Starting Methamphetamine and Increasing Sexual Risk Behavior. J Aquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;1:551–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/qai.0000000000000888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Halkitis PN, Parsons JT, Stirratt MJ. A double epidemic: crystal methamphetamine drug use in relation to HIV transmission. J Homosex. 2001;41(2):17–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Buchacz K, McFarland W, Kellogg TA, Loeb L, Holmberg SD, Dilley J, et al. Amphetamine use is associated with increased HIV incidence among men who have sex with men in San Francisco. Aids. 2005;19(13):1423–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Walters SM, Rivera AV, Starbuck L, Reilly KH, Boldon N, Anderson BJ, et al. Differences in awareness of pre-exposure prophylaxis and post-exposure prophylaxis among groups at-risk for HIV in New York state: New York City and Long Island, NY, 2011–2013. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:S383–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Walters SM, Coston B, Neaigus A, Rivera AV, Starbuck L, Ramirez V, et al. The role of syringe exchange programs and sexual identity in awareness of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for male persons who inject drugs. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;77:102671.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Walters SM, Kral AH, Simpson KA, Wenger L, Bluthenthal RN. HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis prevention awareness, willingness, and perceived barriers among people who inject drugs in Los Angeles and San Francisco, CA. Subst Use Misuse. 2016–2018;2020:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1823419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Miller M, Lee J-Y, Fulcher J, et al. Getting to the point: methamphetamine injection is associated with biomarkers relevant to HIV pathogenesis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;108133:108133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108133.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Muncan B, Walters SM, Ezell J, Ompad DC. “They look at us like junkies”: influences of drug use stigma on the healthcare engagement of people who inject drugs in New York City. Harm Reduct J. 2020;17(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-020-00399-8.

  81. Teran RA, Carrico AW, Horvath KJ, et al. Stimulant use and study protocol completion: assessing the ability of men who have sex with men to collect dried blood spots for laboratory measurement of HIV viral load. Arch Sex Behav. 2019:1–15.

  82. Reback CJ, Peck JA, Dierst-Davies R, Nuno M, Kamien JB, Amass L. Contingency management among homeless, out-of-treatment men who have sex with men. J Subst Abus Treat. 2010;39(3):255–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2010.06.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Shoptaw S, Klausner JD, Reback CJ, et al. A public health response to the methamphetamine epidemic: the implementation of contingency management to treat methamphetamine dependence. BMC Public Health. 2006;6(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-6-214.

  84. Carrico AW, Neilands TB, Dilworth SE, et al. Randomized controlled trial of a positive affect intervention to reduce HIV viral load among sexual minority men who use methamphetamine. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22(12) https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25436.

  85. Carrico AW, Flentje A, Gruber VA, Woods WJ, Discepola MV, Dilworth SE, et al. Community-based harm reduction substance abuse treatment with methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. J Urban Health. 2014;91(3):555–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9870-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Dowling-Guyer S, Johnson ME, Fisher DG, Needle R, Watters J, Andersen M, et al. Reliability of drug users’ self-reported HIV risk behaviors and validity of self-reported recent drug use. Assessment. 1994;1(4):383–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Zibbell JE, Asher AK, Patel RC, Kupronis B, Iqbal K, Ward JW, et al. Increases in acute hepatitis C virus infection related to a growing opioid epidemic and associated injection drug use, United States, 2004 to 2014. Am J Public Health. 2018;108(2):175–81. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2017.304132.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Peters PJ, Pontones P, Hoover KW, Patel MR, Galang RR, Shields J, et al. HIV infection linked to injection use of oxymorphone in Indiana, 2014–2015. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(3):229–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Zibbell JE, Iqbal K, Patel RC, Suryaprasad A, Sanders KJ, Moore-Moravian L, et al. Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged≤ 30 years-Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, 2006-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(17):453–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Pouget ER, Bennett AS. A Syndemic Approach to Understanding HIV/AIDS Among People Who Inject Drugs in the US. In: Wright E., Carnes N. (eds) Understanding the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the United States. Social Disparities in Health and Health Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-34004-3_8.

  91. Baral SD, Friedman MR, Geibel S, Rebe K, Bozhinov B, Diouf D, et al. Male sex workers: practices, contexts, and vulnerabilities for HIV acquisition and transmission. Lancet. 2015;385(9964):260–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by NIDA grant #R01-DA027689 Program Official: Elizabeth Lambert. We thank the participants who took part in this study. The following research staff and volunteers also contributed to the study and are acknowledged here: Sonya Arreola, Vahak Bairamian, Philippe Bourgois, Soo Kin Byun, Jose Collazo, Jacob Curry, David-Preston Dent, Karina Dominguez-Gonzalez, Jahaira Fajardo, Richard Hamilton, Frank Levels, Luis Maldonado, Askia Muhammad, Brett Mendenhall, Stephanie Dyal-Pitts, and Michelle Thorson.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Suzan M. Walters

  2. RTI International, San Francisco, CA, USA

    Alex H. Kral & Lynn Wenger

  3. Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Shona Lamb, Jesse L. Goldshear & Ricky N. Bluthenthal

Authors
  1. Suzan M. Walters
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alex H. Kral
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shona Lamb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jesse L. Goldshear
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lynn Wenger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ricky N. Bluthenthal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Suzan M. Walters.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Walters, S.M., Kral, A.H., Lamb, S. et al. Correlates of Transactional Sex and Violent Victimization among Men Who Inject Drugs in Los Angeles and San Francisco, California. J Urban Health 98, 70–82 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00494-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00494-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation