Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Secondary Spatial Analysis of Gun Violence near Boston Schools: a Public Health Approach

  • Published:
Journal of Urban Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

School neighborhood violence continues to be a major public health problem among urban students. A large body of research addresses violence at school; however, fewer studies have explored concentrations of violence in areas proximal to schools. This study aimed to quantify the concentration of shootings near schools to elucidate the place-based dynamics that may be focal points for violence prevention. Geocoded databases of shooting and school locations were used to examine locational patterns of firearm shootings and elementary, middle, and high schools in Boston, Massachusetts. Analyses utilized spatial statistics for point pattern data including distance matrix and K function methodology to quantify the degree of spatial dependence of shootings around schools. Results suggested that between 2012 and 2015, there were 678 shooting incidents in Boston; the average density was 5.1 per square kilometer. The nearest neighbor index (NNI = 0.335 km, p < .001, O = 0.95 km, E = 0.28 km) and G function analysis revealed a clustered pattern of gun shooting incidents indicative of a spatially non-random process. The mean and median distance from any school to the nearest shooting location was 0.35 and 0.33 km, respectively. A majority (56%, 74/133) of schools in Boston had at least one shooting incident within 400 m, a distance that would take about 5 min to walk if traveling by foot. The bivariate K function indicated that a significantly greater number of shootings were clustered within short distances from schools than would be expected under a null hypothesis of no spatial dependence. Implications for students attending schools in racially homogenous neighborhoods across all income levels are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Borum R, Cornell DG, Modzeleski W, Jimerson SR. What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educ Res. 2010;39(1):27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Mayer MJ, Leone PE. School violence and disruption revisited: equity and safety in the school house. Focus Except Child. 2007;40(1):1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Kupchik A, Brent JJ, Mowen TJ. The aftermath of Newtown: more of the same. Br J Criminol. 2015;55(6):1115–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Bieler S, La Vigne N. Close-range gunfire around DC schools. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute; 2014.

  5. Fein RA. Threat assessment in schools: a guide to managing threatening situations and to creating safe school climates. Washington, D.C.: DIANE Publishing; 2002.

  6. Kimmel M. Profiling school shooters and shooter’s schools. There is a gunman on campus: tragedy and terror at Virginia Tech. 2008;65.

  7. Kaiser DA. School shootings, high school size, and neurobiological considerations. J Neurother. 2006;9(3):101–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Thompson S, Kyle K. Understanding mass school shootings: links between personhood and power in the competitive school environment. J Prim Prev. 2005;26(5):419–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Baird AA, Roellke EV, Zeifman DM. Alone and adrift: the association between mass school shootings, school size, and student support. Soc Sci J. 2017;54:261–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Klein S, Merritt DH. Neighborhood racial & ethnic diversity as a predictor of child welfare system involvement. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2014;41:95–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Sherman LW, Gartin PR, Buerger ME. Hot spots of predatory crime: routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology. 1989;27(1):27–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Weisburd D, Eck JE. What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci. 2004;593(1):42–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Braga AA, Papachristos AV, Hureau DM. The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980–2008. J Quant Criminol. 2010;26(1):33–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Barboza GE. The geography of child maltreatment: a spatiotemporal analysis using Bayesian hierarchical analysis with integrated nested Laplace approximation. J Interpers Violence. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516639583.

  15. Kennedy DM, Piehl AM, Braga AA. Youth violence in Boston: gun markets, serious youth offenders, and a use-reduction strategy. Law Contemp Probl. 1996;59(1):147–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Massachustts Co. 2013 Mortality report. http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/docs/dmr/reports/mortalityreport2013.pdf 2013.

  17. Shaw CR, McKay HD. Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1942.

  18. Shaw CR, McKay HD. Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Revised edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press; 1969.

  19. Sampson RJ, Groves WB. Community structure and crime: testing social-disorganization theory. Am J Sociol. 1989;94(4):774–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Borum R. Evaluating violence risk in children and adolescents. The Oxford Handbook of Behavioral Emergencies and Crises 2016:60.

  21. Chang LY, Wang MY, Tsai PS. Neighborhood disadvantage and physical aggression in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of multilevel studies. Aggress Behav. 2016;42(5):441–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Spano R, Pridemore WA, Bolland J. Are exposure to violence and violent behavior precursors for initiation of gun carrying for poor, urban minority youth? J Interpers Violence. 2012;27(1):158–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Morenoff JD, Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW. Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology. 2001;39(3):517–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Korbin JE, Coulton CJ, Chard S, Platt–Houston C, Su M. Impoverishment and child maltreatment in African American and European American neighborhoods. D5ev Psychopathol. 1998;10(2):215–33.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Sampson RJ, & Wilson WJ. Toward a theory of race, crime, and urban inequality. In Gabbidon, S. L. & Greene, H. T. (Eds.), Race, crime, and justice: A reader; 1995. pp. 37–54. Abingdon, England: Taylor & Francis.

  26. Bronfenbrenner U. Contexts of child rearing: problems and prospects. Am Psychol. 1979;34(10):844–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Garbarino J, Abramowitz RH. The ecology of human development. Children Fam Soc Environ. 1992;2:11–34.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Finkelhor D, Shattuck A, Turner HA, Hamby SL. Trends in children’s exposure to violence, 2003 to 2011. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(6):540–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. McLaughlin KA, Koenen KC, Hill ED, Petukhova M, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, et al. Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;52(8):815–830. e814.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Overstreet S, Chafouleas SM. Trauma-informed schools: introduction to the special issue. Sch Ment Heal. 2016;8(1):1–6.

  31. Perfect MM, Turley MR, Carlson JS, Yohanna J, Saint Gilles MP. School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students: a systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015. Sch Ment Heal. 2016;8(1):7–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Campbell C, Schwarz DF. Prevalence and impact of exposure to interpersonal violence among suburban and urban middle school students. Pediatrics. 1996;98(3):396–402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Fitzpatrick KM, Boldizar JP. The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(2):424–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Messer SC, Gross AM. Childhood depression and aggression: a covariance structure analysis. Behav Res Ther. 1994;32(6):663–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Horowitz K, Weine S, Jekel J. PTSD symptoms in urban adolescent girls: compounded community trauma. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(10):1353–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Slovak K. Gun violence and children: factors related to exposure and trauma. Health Soc Work. 2002;27(2):104–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Flannery DJ, Singer MI, Wester K. Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(4):435–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Moses A. Exposure to violence, depression, and hostility in a sample of inner city high school youth. J Adolesc. 1999;22(1):21–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Rivara FP, Shepherd JP, Farrington DP, Richmond P, Cannon P. Victim as offender in youth violence. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26(5):609–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Widom CS. Child abuse, neglect, and violent criminal behavior. Criminology. 1989;27(2):251–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. DuRant RH, Getts A, Cadenhead C, Emans SJ, Woods ER. Exposure to violence and victimization and depression, hopelessness, and purpose in life among adolescents living in and around public housing. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1995;16(4):233-237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Cauffman E, Feldman S, Watherman J, Steiner H. Posttraumatic stress disorder among female juvenile offenders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37(11):1209–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Singer MI, Anglin TM, yu Song L, Lunghofer L. Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma. JAMA. 1995;273(6):477–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Slovak K, Singer M. Gun violence exposure and trauma among rural youth. Violence Vict. 2001;16(4):389–400.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Bowen NK, Bowen GL. Effects of crime and violence in neighborhoods and schools on the school behavior and performance of adolescents. J Adolesc Res. 1999;14(3):319–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Burrow JD, Apel R. Youth behavior, school structure, and student risk of victimization. Justice Q. 2008;25(2):349–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Fowler Jr WJ, Walberg HJ. School size, characteristics, and outcomes. Educ Eval Policy Anal. 1991;13(2):189–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Haller EJ. High school size and student indiscipline: another aspect of the school consolidation issue? Educ Eval Policy Anal. 1992;14(2):145–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Lee VE, Bryk AS. A multilevel model of the social distribution of high school achievement. Sociol Educ. 1989;62:172–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Pittman RB, Haughwout P. Influence of high school size on dropout rate. Educ Eval Policy Anal. 1987;9(4):337–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Ratner HH, Chiodo L, Covington C, Sokol RJ, Ager J, Delaney-Black V. Violence exposure, IQ, academic performance, and children’s perception of safety: evidence of protective effects. Merrill-Palmer Q. 2006;52(2):264–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Ventura C. School violence to school safety: reframing the issue for school psychologists. Sch Psychol Rev. 1994;23(2):236–56.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Berman SL, Silverman WK, Kurtines WM. Youth exposure to crime and violence: its effects and implications for intervention. J Cogn Psychother. 2000;14(1):37–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Cooley-Quille MR, Turner SM, Beidel DC. Emotional impact of children’s exposure to community violence: a preliminary study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(10):1362–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hill HM, Levermore M, Twaite J, Jones LP. Exposure to community violence and social support as predictors of anxiety and social and emotional behavior among African American children. J Child Fam Stud. 1996;5(4):399–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Powell EC, Sheehan KM, Christoffel KK. Firearm violence among youth: public health strategies for prevention. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28(2):204–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Buka SL, Stichick TL, Birdthistle I, Earls FJ. Youth exposure to violence: prevalence, risks, and consequences. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2001;71(3):298–310.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Begic D, Jokic-Begic N. Violent behaviour and post-traumatic stress disorder. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2002;15(6):623–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Fagan J, Wilkinson DL. Guns, youth violence, and social identity in inner cities. Crime Justice. 1998;24:105–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Garbarino J, Bradshaw CP, Vorrasi JA. Mitigating the effects of gun violence on children and youth. Futur Child. 2002:73–85.

  61. Bingenheimer JB, Brennan RT, Earls FJ. Firearm violence exposure and serious violent behavior. Science. 2005;308(5726):1323–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Barboza GE, Dominguez S. Longitudinal growth of post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms following a child maltreatment allegation: an examination of violence exposure, family risk and placement type. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2017;81:368–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Barboza GE, Dominguez S, Pinder J. Trajectories of post-traumatic stress and externalizing psychopathology among maltreated foster care youth: a parallel process latent growth curve model. Child Abuse Negl. 2017;72:370–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Bath H. The three pillars of trauma-informed care. Reclaiming Children Youth. 2008;17(3):17.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Van der Kolk BA. Developmental trauma disorder: towards a rational diagnosis for chronically traumatized children. Prax Kinderpsychol Kinderpsychiatr. 2008;58(8):572–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Sharkey PT, Tirado-Strayer N, Papachristos AV, Raver CC. The effect of local violence on children’s attention and impulse control. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(12):2287–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Sharkey P, Schwartz AE, Ellen IG, Lacoe J. High stakes in the classroom, high stakes on the street: the effects of community violence on student’s standardized test performance. Sociol Sci. 2014;1:199–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Adams EJ. Healing Invisible Wounds: Why Investing in Trauma-Informed Care for Children Makes Sense. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Layne CM, Pynoos RS, and Cardenas J. Wounded adolescence: School-based group psychotherapy for adolescents who sustained or witnessed violent injury. In School violence: Contributing factors, management, and prevention. M. Shafii and S. Shafii, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 2001, pp. 163–86.

  70. Pynoos RS, Nader K. Children’s exposure to violence and traumatic death. Psychiatr Ann. 1990;20(6):334–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Saltzman WR, Pynoos RS, Layne CM, Steinberg AM, Aisenberg E. Trauma-and grief-focused intervention for adolescents exposed to community violence: results of a school-based screening and group treatment protocol. Group Dyn: Theory Res Pract. 2001;5(4):291–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Bowen GL, Richman JM, Brewster A, Bowen N. Sense of school coherence, perceptions of danger at school, and teacher support among youth at risk of school failure. Child Adolesc Soc Work J. 1998;15(4):273–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Kwate NOA, Loh JM. Separate and unequal: the influence of neighborhood and school characteristics on spatial proximity between fast food and schools. Prev Med. 2010;51(2):153–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Austin SB, Melly SJ, Sanchez BN, Patel A, Buka S, Gortmaker SL. Clustering of fast-food restaurants around schools: a novel application of spatial statistics to the study of food environments. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(9):1575–81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Ellaway A, Macdonald L, Lamb K, Thornton L, Day P, Pearce J. Do obesity-promoting food environments cluster around socially disadvantaged schools in Glasgow, Scotland? Health Place. 2012;18(6):1335–40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Berman M, Diggle P. Estimating weighted integrals of the second-order intensity of a spatial point process. J R Stat Soc Ser B Methodol. 1989:81–92.

  77. Kwate NOA, Yau C-Y, Loh J-M, Williams D. Inequality in obesigenic environments: fast food density in New York City. Health Place. 2009;15(1):364–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Schools BP. Boston public schools at a glance 2015–2016. BPS Facts; 2016.

  79. Macridis S, García Bengoechea E. Adoption of safe routes to school in Canadian and the United States contexts: best practices and recommendations. J Sch Health. 2015;85(8):558–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Fast JD. After columbine: how people mourn sudden death. Soc Work. 2003;48(4):484–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Fein AH. There and back again: school shootings as experienced by school leaders. Lanham: Scarecrow Education; 2003.

  82. Windham RC, Hooper LM, Hudson PE. Selected spiritual religious, and family factors in the prevention of school violence. Couns Values. 2005;49(3):208–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by funding from the Youth Violence Prevention Collaborative through the State Street Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA

    Gia Barboza

Authors
  1. Gia Barboza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gia Barboza.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Barboza, G. A Secondary Spatial Analysis of Gun Violence near Boston Schools: a Public Health Approach. J Urban Health 95, 344–360 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0244-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0244-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation