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The Relationship between Perceived Underemployment and Wellbeing: Evidence from Mid-Size Canadian Cities

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Abstract

This study examines the association between underemployment and quality of life, with a focus the explanatory power of community and leisure factors. Using survey data collected by the Canadian Index of Wellbeing in four mid-size communities (N = 5561), a subsample of participants was selected who indicated that they worked for pay (n = 2845). About one-fifth of workers were underemployed, based on a perceived mismatch between their job and their education and training. Guided by a modified perspective of the Leisure Constraints Model that includes intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural level constraints and/or facilitators to participation, data were analyzed using two linear regression models examining overall wellbeing and self-assessed mental health. After controlling for socio-demographic characteristics in each model, mediators were introduced and then further probed to determine significant pathways in the relationships. In both cases, the direct effect of underemployment was negative. Wellbeing among underemployed workers was partially mediated by two structural, and one interpersonal factors: time for self, perceived access to recreation and cultural opportunities, and sense of community. Mental health was fully mediated by time for self and sense of community. In a test of contrast between significant pathways, there were no differences in either model, suggesting that each of the significant leisure moderators contributed equally to the relationship between underemployment and quality of life. Community and leisure factors have been relatively unexamined to date, but results show that they should be considered for inclusion in future research on personal outcomes of underemployment.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Canadian Index of Wellbeing, Faculty of Applied Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

    Margo Hilbrecht

  2. Canadian Index of Wellbeing and Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

    Bryan Smale

  3. Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada

    Steven E. Mock

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  1. Margo Hilbrecht
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Correspondence to Margo Hilbrecht.

Appendix

Appendix

Wellbeing refers to a holistic, global measure of wellbeing based on the conceptual framework of the Canadian Index of Wellbeing. It includes eight domains: community vitality, democratic engagement, education, environment, healthy populations, leisure and culture, living standards, and time use. The scale was preceeded by the statement, “We would like you to indicate your overall level of satisfaction with a variety of areas that affect wellbeing.” Respondents were then asked, “For each of the following statements, please indicate how satisfied you are by checking the circle that best describes how you feel”

Wellbeing scale (α = .88)

(Scale: 1 = extremely dissatisfied, 7 = extremely satisfied)

Community vitality

  • My sense of belonging to this community

  • My personal relationships

Democratic engagement

  • The way my local government responds to community needs*

  • How well democracy is working in our community**

Education

  • My access to educational opportunities in the community

Environment

  • My neighbourhood as a place to live

  • The environmental quality of my neighbourhood

Healthy populations

  • My mental wellbeing

  • My physical wellbeing

Leisure and culture

  • My access to arts and cultural opportunities in the community

  • My access to parks and recreational opportunities in the community*

  • My leisure time

Living Standards

  • My financial situation

  • My work situation

Time use

  • The balance of activities in my daily life*

  • The way I spend my time*

Source: Adapted from Musikanski et al. (2016)

* Statements added by the Canadian Index of Wellbeing (CIW) to address all components of the wellbeing conceptual framework

** Statement based on Musikanski et al. (2016) and modified by the CIW

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Hilbrecht, M., Smale, B. & Mock, S.E. The Relationship between Perceived Underemployment and Wellbeing: Evidence from Mid-Size Canadian Cities. Applied Research Quality Life 12, 607–631 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-016-9479-2

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