Abstract
Purpose
Bacterial cellulose (BC), obtained by fermentation, is an innovative and promising material with a broad spectrum of potential applications. Despite the increasing efforts towards its industrialization, a deeper understanding of the environmental impact related to the BC production process is still required. This work aimed at quantifying the environmental, health, and resource depletion impacts related to a production of BC.
Methods
An attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) was applied to a process design of production of BC, by static culture, following a cradle-to-gate approach. The LCA was modeled with GaBi Pro Software using the ReCiPe 2016 (H) methodology with environmental impact indicators at midpoint level. The functional unit was defined as 1 kg of BC (dry mass), in 138.8 kg of water.
Results
From the total used resources (38.9 ton/kg of BC), water is the main one (36.1 ton/kg of BC), most of which (98%) is returned to fresh waters after treatment. The production of raw materials consumed 17.8 ton of water/kg of BC, 13.8 ton/kg of BC of which was for the production of carton packaging, culture medium raw materials, and sodium hydroxide (for the washing of BC). The remaining consumed water was mainly for the fermentation (3.9 ton/kg) and downstream process (7.7 ton/kg). From the identified potential environmental impacts, the production of raw materials had the highest impact, mainly on “Climate change”, “Fossil depletion”, “Human toxicity, non-cancer”, and “Terrestrial toxicity”. The sodium dihydrogen phosphate production, used in the culture medium, showed the highest environmental impacts in “Human toxicity, non-cancer” and “Terrestrial ecotoxicity”, followed by corn syrup and carton production. The static culture fermentation and downstream process showed impact in “Climate change” and “Fossil depletion”.
Conclusions
Per se, the BC production process had a small contribution to the consumption of resources and environmental impact of the BC global life cycle.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aragão JVS, Costa AFS, Silva GL, Silva SM, Macêdo JS, Galdino CJS Jr, Milanez VFA, Sarubbo LA (2020) Analysis of the environmental life cycle of bacterial cellulose production. Chem Eng Trans 79:445–450. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET2079075
Arvidsson R, Nguyen D, Svanström M (2015) Life cycle assessment of cellulose nanofibrils production by mechanical treatment and two different pretreatment processes. Environ Sci Technol 49:6881–6890. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00888
Ashori A, Sheykhnazari S, Tabarsa T, Shakeri A, Golalipour M (2012) Bacterial cellulose/silica nanocomposites: preparation and characterization. Carbohydr Polym 90:413–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.05.060
Campano C, Balea A, Blanco A, Negro C (2016) Enhancement of the fermentation process and properties of bacterial cellulose: a review. Cellulose 23:57–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-015-0802-0
Chawla P, Bajaj I, Survase S, Singhal R (2009) Microbial cellulose: fermentative production and applications. Food Technol Biotechnol 47:107–124
da Silva FAGS, Oliveira JV, Felgueiras C, Dourado F, Gama M, Alves MM (2020) Study and valorisation of wastewaters generated in the production of bacterial nanocellulose. Biodegradation 31:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10532-020-09893-z
Dourado F, Fontão A, Leal M, Rodrigues AC, Gama M (2016a) Chapter 12 - Process modeling and techno-economic evaluation of an industrial bacterial nanocellulose fermentation process. In: Bacterial Nanocellulose: From Biotechnology to Bio-Economy. Elsevier Inc., pp 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63458-0.00012-3
Dourado F, Leal M, Martins D, Fontão A, Rodrigues AC, Gama M (2016b) Chapter 7 - celluloses as food ingredients/additives: is there a room for BNC? In: Bacterial Nanocellulose: From Biotechnology to Bio-Economy. Elsevier Inc., pp 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63458-0.00007-X
Dourado F, van den Berg C, Gama M (2016c) Chapter 8 - European regulatory framework on novel foods and novel food additives. In: Bacterial Nanocellulose: From Biotechnology to Bio-Economy. Elsevier Inc., pp 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63458-0.00008-1
Esa F, Tasirin SM, Rahman NA (2014) Overview of bacterial cellulose production and application. Agric Agric Sci Procedia 2:113–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2014.11.017
Fröhling M, Hiete M (2020) Sustainability and life cycle assessment in industrial biotechnology: a review of current approaches and future needs. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 173:143–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2020_122
Gama FMP, Dourado F (2018) Bacterial NanoCellulose: what future? BioImpacts 8:1–3. https://doi.org/10.15171/bi.2018.01
González P, Vega M, Zaror C (2011) Life cycle inventory of pine and eucalyptus cellulose production in Chile: effect of process modifications. In: Finkbeiner M. (eds) Towards Life Cycle Sustainability Management. Springer Netherlands, pp 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1899-9_25
Gu H, Reiner R, Bergman R, Rudie A (2015) LCA study for pilot scale production of cellulose nano crystals (CNC) from wood pulp. LCA XV Pap Proc – A Bright Green Future 33–42
Hervy M, Evangelisti S, Lettieri P, Lee KY (2015) Life cycle assessment of nanocellulose-reinforced advanced fibre composites. Compos Sci Technol 118:154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2015.08.024
Hauschild M, Goedkoop M, Guinee J, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, Jolliet O, Margni M, De Schryver A, Pennington D, Pant R, Sala S, Brandao M, Wolf M (2011) Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European context - based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors (International Reference Life Cycle Data System - ILCD handbook). EUR 24571 EN. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union JRC61049
Hjørnevik M (2018) What is cellulose fibrils and exilva microfibrillated cellulose? Exilva https://www.exilva.com/blog/what-is-microfibrillated-cellulose-mfc. Accessed 21 Sept 2020
Huijbregts MAJ, Steinmann ZJN, Elshout PMF, Stam G, Verones F, Vieira M, Zijp M, Hollander A, van Zelm R (2017) ReCiPe2016: a harmonised life cycle impact assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level. Int J Life Cycle Assess 22:138–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1246-y
Jozala AF, de Lencastre-Novaes LC, Lopes AM, Santos-Ebinuma VC, Mazzola PG, Pessoa A Jr, Grotto D, Gerenutti M, Chaud MV (2016) Bacterial nanocellulose production and application: a 10-year overview. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100:2063–2072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-7243-4
Jozala AF, Pértile RAN, dos Santos CA, Santos-Ebinuma VC, Seckler MM, Gama FM, Pessoa A Jr (2015) Bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus by employing alternative culture media. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99:1181–1190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-6232-3
Keshk SM (2014) Bacterial cellulose production and its industrial applications. J Bioprocess Biotech 4(2):1000150. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9821.1000150
Keshk SMAS, Razek TMA, Sameshima K (2006) Bacterial cellulose production from beet molasses. African J Biotechnol 5:1519–1523
Klemm D, Kramer F, Moritz S, Lindström T, Ankerfors M, Gray D, Dorris A (2011) Nanocelluloses: a new family of nature-based materials. Angew Chemie Int Ed 50:5438–5466. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201001273
Klemm D, Schumann D, Udhardt U, Marsch S (2001) Bacterial synthesized cellulose - artificial blood vessels for microsurgery. Prog Polym Sci 26:1561–1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6700(01)00021-1
Lee KY, Buldum G, Mantalaris A, Bismarck A (2014) More than meets the eye in bacterial cellulose: biosynthesis, bioprocessing, and applications in advanced fiber composites. Macromol Biosci 14(1):10–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201300298
Lejeune A, Deprez T (2010) Cellulose: structure and properties, derivatives and industrial uses. Nova Science Publishers
Li Q, McGinnis S, Sydnor C et al (2013) Nanocellulose life cycle assessment. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 1:919–928. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc4000225
Müller A, Ni Z, Hessler N, Wesarg F, Müller FA, Kralisch D, Fischer D (2013) The biopolymer bacterial nanocellulose as drug delivery system: investigation of drug loading and release using the model protein albumin. J Pharm Sci 102:579–592. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.23385
Mussatto SI, Aguia LM, Marinha MI, Jorge RC, Ferreira EC (2015) Economic analysis and environmental impact assessment of three different fermentation processes for fructooligosaccharides production. Biores Tech 198:673–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.09.060
Nimeskern L, Martínez Ávila H, Sundberg J, Gatenholm P, Müller R, Stok KS (2013) Mechanical evaluation of bacterial nanocellulose as an implant material for ear cartilage replacement. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 22:12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2013.03.005
Pertile RAN, Andrade FK, Alves C, Gama M (2010) Surface modification of bacterial cellulose by nitrogen-containing plasma for improved interaction with cells. Carbohydr Polym 82:692–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.05.037
Rajwade JM, Paknikar KM, Kumbhar JV (2015) Applications of bacterial cellulose and its composites in biomedicine. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99:2491–2511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6426-3
Saibuatong O, Phisalaphong M (2010) Novo aloe vera-bacterial cellulose composite film from biosynthesis. Carbohydr Polym 79:455–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.08.039
Shah N, Ul-Islam M, Khattak WA, Park JK (2013) Overview of bacterial cellulose composites: a multipurpose advanced material. Carbohydr Polym 98:1585–1598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.08.018
Shatkin JA, Kim B (2015) Cellulose nanomaterials: life cycle risk assessment, and environmental health and safety roadmap. Environ Sci Nano 2:477–499. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5en00059a
Shi Z, Zhang Y, Phillips GO, Yang G (2014) Utilization of bacterial cellulose in food. Food Hydrocoll 35:539–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.07.012
Silva RA, Brígida AIS, Rosa MF, Neto RMS, Spinosa WA, Filho EBS, Figueirêdo MCB (2020) An approach for implementing ecodesign at early research stage: a case study of bacterial cellulose production. J Clean Prod 269:122245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122245
Soykeabkaew N, Tawichai N, Thanomsilp C, Suwantong O (2017) Nanocellulose-reinforced “green” composite materials. Walailak J Sci Tech 14(5):353–368
Sukara E, Meliawati R (2016) Potential values of bacterial cellulose for industrial applications. J Selulosa 4:7–16. https://doi.org/10.25269/jsel.v4i01.51
Ullah H, Santos HA, Khan T (2016) Applications of bacterial cellulose in food, cosmetics and drug delivery. Cellulose 23:2291–2314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-0986-y
Funding
This study was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) within the scope of the strategic funding of UIDB/04469/2020 and UIDB/00511/2020 units and MultiBiorefinery project (SAICTPAC/0040/2015-POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016403). This study was also supported by The Navigator Company through the I&D no. 21874, “Inpactus-–Produtos e Tecnologias Inovadores a partir do Eucalipto”, funded through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização (POCI) is greatly acknowledged. The work by Belmira Neto was financially supported by Base Funding—UIDB/00511/2020 of the Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy—LEPABE—funded by national funds through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Ivan Muñoz.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Forte, A., Dourado, F., Mota, A. et al. Life cycle assessment of bacterial cellulose production. Int J Life Cycle Assess 26, 864–878 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-021-01904-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-021-01904-2