Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent toxic substances that have ubiquitous presence in water, air, soil, and sediment environments. The growth of PAH toxicities and related ecotoxicology risk in sediment has been a serious concern. Present study examined the PAH concentration, sources, and ecological risk from the selected sites in sediment of Fenhe River. The characteristic molecular ratio (CMR) and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied to analyze the sources. The ecological risk assessment was conducted based on the sediment quality guidelines, the mean effects range median quotient, as well as the toxic equivalent quantity values. The results showed that the mean values of total contents of the 16 individual PAHs were 3.66 mg/kg and 3.16 mg/kg in wet and dry seasons, which were relatively high when compared with other rivers worldwide. Their spatial distribution presented the lower contents in the upstream, while higher concentrations in the middle and down streams of the river. The low molecular weight PAHs were major constituents, and 3-ring PAHs have the highest contents. The results of source analysis indicated that PAHs were primarily from the burning of oil, coal, and biomass. The ecological risk evaluations suggested that the possible adverse biological effects, the low to medium comprehensive risks, and the minor carcinogenic risks existed in the study area. This investigation might provide useful baseline data and technical support for policy-makers and researchers.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Abbasnejad B, Keshavarzi B, Mohammadi Z, Moore F, Abbasnejad A (2019) Characteristics, distribution, source apportionment, and potential health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban street dust of Kerman metropolis, Iran. Int J Environ Health Res 29(6):668–685. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2019.1566523
Aghadadashi V, Mehdinia A, Riyahi B, Mohammadi J, Moradi M (2019) Source, spatial distribution, and toxicity potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from Iran’s environmentally hot zones, the Persian Gulf. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 173:514–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.02.029
Ambade B, Sankar TK, Kumar A, Gautam AS, Gautam S (2021a) COVID-19 lockdowns reduce the Black carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of the Asian atmosphere: source apportionment and health hazard evaluation. Environ Dev Sustain 23:12252–12271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01167-1
Ambade B, Sethi SS, Kumar A, Sankar TK, Kurwadkar S (2021b) Health risk assessment, composition, and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in drinking water of Southern Jharkhand, East India. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 80:120–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00779-y
Ambade B, Sethi SS, Kurwadkar S, Mishra P, Tripathee L (2022a) Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediment residues of Mahanadi River Estuary: abundance, source, and risk assessment. Mar Pollut Bull 183:114073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114073
Ambade B, Sethi SS, Giri B, Biswas JK, Bauddh K (2022b) Characterization, behavior, and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the estuary sediments. B Environ Contam Tox 108:243–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-021-03393-3
Ambade B, Sethi SS, Chintalacheruvu MR (2023) Distribution, risk assessment, and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using positive matrix factorization (PMF) in urban soils of East India. Environ Geochem Hlth 45:491–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01223-x
Bralewska K, Rakowska J (2020) Concentrations of particulate matter and PM-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons released during combustion of various types of materials and possible toxicological potential of the emissions: the results of preliminary studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:3202. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093202
Carneiro DSRC, Vieira SLGG, Ewerton S, Cardoso DF, Martins CJA (2018) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of the Amazon River Estuary (Amapá, Northern Brazil): distribution, sources and potential ecological risk. Mar Pollut Bull 135:769–775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.07.053
Chen CF, Ju YR, Su YC, Lim YC, Kao CM, Chen CW, Dong CD (2020) Distribution, sources, and behavior of PAHs in estuarine water systems exemplified by, Salt River, Taiwan Mar Pollut Bul 154: 111029.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111029
CCME (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-Canadian soil quality guidelines for protection of environmental and human health[S] 2010.
Dhar K, Subashchandrabose SR, Venkateswarlu K, Krishnan K, Megharaj M (2020) Anaerobic microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a comprehensive review. Rev Environ Contam T 251:25–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2019_29
Duodu GO, Ogogo KN, Mummullage S, Harden F, Goonetilleke A, Ayoko GA (2017) Source apportionment and risk assessment of PAHs in Brisbane River sediment, Australia. Ecol Indic 73:784–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.10.038
Duttagupta S, Mukherjee A, Routh J, Devi LG, Bhattacharya A, Bhattacharya J (2020) Role of aquifer media in determining the fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the natural water and sediments along the lower Ganges river basin. J Environ Sci Heal A, Part A 55:354–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2019.1696617
Eljarrat E, Caixach J, Rivera J, de Torres M, Ginebreda A (2001) Toxic potency assessment of non-and mono-ortho PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs, and PAHs in northwest Mediterranean sediments (Catalonia, Spain). Environ Sci Technol 35:3589–3594. https://doi.org/10.1021/es010041a
Feng JL, Hua PT, Sua XF et al (2018) Impact of suspended sediment on the behavior of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Yellow River: spatial distribution, transport and fate. Appl Geochem 98:278–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2018.10.008
Galán-Madruga D, Ubeda RM, Terroba JM, Dos Santos SG, García-Cambero JP (2022) Influence of the products of biomass combustion processes on air quality and cancer risk assessment in rural environmental (Spain). Environ Geochem Health 44:2595–2613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01052-4
Han B, Liu A, Wang S, Lin FX, Zheng L (2020) Concentration level, distribution model, source analysis, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from Laizhou bay. China Mar Pollut Bull 150:110690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110690
Han B, Liu A, Gong J, Li Q, He X, Zhao J, Zheng L (2021a) Spatial distribution, source analysis, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sediments from rivers emptying into Jiaozhou Bay. China Mar Pollut Bull 168:112394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112394
Han B, Cui D, Liu A, Li Q, Zheng L (2021b) Distribution, sources, and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments from Daya Bay, South China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:25858–25865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11956-w
Jia T, Guo W, Xing Y, Lei R, Wu X, Sun S, Liu W (2021a) Spatial distributions and sources of PAHs in soil in chemical industry parks in the Yangtze River Delta. China Environ Pollut 283:117121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117121
Jia J, Deng L, Bi C, Jin X, Zeng Y, Chen Z (2021b) Seasonal variations, gas-PM2.5 partitioning and long-distance input of PM2.5-bound and gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Shanghai, China. Atmos Environ 252:118335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118335
Jiang B, Zheng HL, Huang GQ, Hui DING, Li XG, Suo HT, Rui LI (2007) Characterization and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in sediments of Haihe River, Tianjin, China. J Environ Sci 19:306–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(07)60050-3
Jiang Y, Yuan L, Wen H, Zhang Q, Liu L, Wu Y (2020) Distribution, composition, sources, and potential ecological risks of PAHs in the sediments of the Lanzhou reach of the Yellow River, China. B Environ Contam Tox 105:613–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02998-4
Khuman SN, Chakraborty P, Cincinelli A, Snow D, Kumar B (2018) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface waters and riverine sediments of the Hooghly and Brahmaputra Rivers in the Eastern and Northeastern India. Sci Total Environ 636:751–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.109
Kurwadkar S, Sethi SS, Mishra P, Ambade B (2022) Unregulated discharge of wastewater in the Mahanadi River Basin: risk evaluation due to occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in surface water and sediments. Mar Pollut Bull 179:113686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113686
Kurwadkar S, Sankar TK, Kumar A, Ambade B, Gautam S, Gautam AS, Biswas JK, Salam MA (2023) Emissions of black carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: potential implications of cultural practices during the Covid-19 pandemic. Gondwana Research 114:4–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2022.10.001
Lee CC, Chen CS, Wang ZX, Tien CJ (2021) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 30 river ecosystems, Taiwan: sources, and ecological and human health risks. Sci Total Environ 795:148867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148867
Li Q, Zhang X, Yan C (2010) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination of recent sediments and marine organisms from Xiamen Bay, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 58:711–721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-009-9395-7
Liang X, Junaid M, Wang Z, Li T, Xu N (2019) Spatiotemporal distribution, source apportionment and ecological risk assessment of PBDEs and PAHs in the Guanlan River from rapidly urbanizing areas of Shenzhen, China. Environ Pollut 250:695–707
Liang S, Yan X, An B, Yang Y, Liu M (2022) Distribution and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different compartments in Kenya: a review. Emerg Contamin 8:351–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2022.08.001
Liu X, Chen Z, Xia C, Wu J, Ding Y (2020) Characteristics, distribution, source and ecological risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments along the Yangtze River Estuary Deepwater Channel. Mar Pollut Bull 127:110765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110765
Lin F, Han B, Ding Y, Li Q, Zheng L (2018) Distribution characteristics, sources, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from the Qinhuangdao coastal wetland, China. Mar Pollut Bull 127:788–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.054
Lewis MA, Russell MJ (2015) Contaminant profiles for surface water, sediment, fora and fauna associated with the mangrove fringe along middle and lower eastern Tampa Bay. Mar Pollut Bull 95:273–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.054
Long ER, MacDonald DD (1998) Recommended uses of empirically derived, sediment quality guidelines for marine and estuarine ecosystems. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 4:1019–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039891284956
Long ER, MacDonald DD, Smith SL, Calder FD (1995) Incidence of adverse biological effects within ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and estuarine sediments. Environ Manage 19:81–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02472006
Maletić SP, Beljin JM, Rončević SD, Grgić MG, Dalmacija BD (2019) State of the art and future challenges for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is sediments: sources, fate, bioavailability and remediation techniques. J Hazard Mater 365:467–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.11.020
Pereira DCA, Custódio D, de Andrade MDF, Alves C, de Castro VP (2019) Air quality of an urban school in São Paulo city. Environ Monit Assess 191:659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7815-3
Pang SY, Suratman S, Latif MT, Khan MF, Simoneit BR, Mohd Tahir N (2022) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments of Southern Terengganu, South China Sea, Malaysia: source assessment using diagnostic ratios and multivariate statistic. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:15849–15862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16762-6
Patel AB, Shaikh S, Jain KR, Desai C, Madamwar D (2020) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: sources, toxicity, and remediation approaches. Front Microbiol 11:562813. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.562813
Peng Q, Li L, Sun J, He K, Zhang B, Zou H, Xu H, Cao J, Shen Z (2023) VOC emission profiles from typical solid fuel combustion in Fenhe River Basin: field measurements and environmental implication. Environmental Pollution 322:121172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121172
Peters CA, And CDK, Brown DG (1999) Long-term composition dynamics of PAH containing NAPLs and implications for risk assessment. Environ Sci Technol 33: 4499-4507 https://doi.org/10.1021/es981203e
Sandro F, Juliane R, Maria VL, Juan S (2018) PAHs in water, sediment and biota in an area with port activities. Arch Environ Con Tox 75:236–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-018-0538-6
Singare PU (2015) Studies on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of Mithi River near Mumbai, India: assessment of sources, toxicity risk and biological impact. Mar Pollut Bull 101:232–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.057
Sprovieri M, Feo ML, Prevedello L, Manta DS, Sammartino S, Tamburrino S, Marsella E (2007) Heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of the Naples Harbour (southern Italy). Chemosphere 67:998–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.10.055
Sun SJ, Jia LR, Li B, Yuan AN, Kong LJ, Qi H, Ma WL, Zhang AP, Wu YN (2018) The occurrence and fate of PAHs over multiple years in a wastewater treatment plant of Harbin, Northeast China. Sci Total Environ 624:491–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.029
Toan VD, Quynh TX, Huong NTL (2020) Edocrine disrupting compounds in sediment from Kim Nguu River, northern area of Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of seasonal variation, accumulation pattern and ecological risk[J]. Environ Geochem Hlth 42:647–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00399-z
Wagner AM, Barker AJ (2019) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from legacy spills at an Alaskan Arctic site underlain by permafrost. Cold Reg Sci Technol 158:154–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.11.012
Wang Y, Liu X, Zhang H, Duan L (2022) Pollution characteristics and population health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coking contaminated soils. Environmental. Challenges 9:100613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100613
Wang G, Han B, Wang Y, Liu J, Zheng Y, Zheng L, Lu Z (2023) Distribution, source, and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments from Dingzi Bay. China J Sea Res 102387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2023.102387
Xiang N, Jiang C, Yang T, Li P, Wang H, Xie Y, Diao X (2018) Occurrence and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seawater, sediments and corals from Hainan Island, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 152:8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.01.006
Yang Y, Wang H, Chang Y, Yan G, Chu Z, Zhao Z, Wu T (2020) Distributions, compositions, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalic acid esters in surface sediment of Songhua river. China Mar Pollut Bull 152:110923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.110923
Yu H, Liu Y, Han C, Fang H, Weng J, Shu X, Pan Y, Ma L (2021) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface waters from the seven main river basins of China: spatial distribution, source apportionment, and potential risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 752:141764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141764
Zhao Y, Dang J, Wang F (2020) Sources of nitrogen pollution in upstream of Fenhe River reservoir based on the nitrogen and oxygen stable isotope. J Chem 2020:6574210. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6574210
Zhang Q, Meng J, Su G, Liu Z, Shi B, Wang T (2021) Source apportionment and risk assessment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils at a typical coking plant. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 222:112509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021
Zheng B, Wang L, Lei K, Nan B (2016) Distribution and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water, suspended particulate matter and sediment from Daliao River estuary and the adjacent area, China. Chemosphere 149:91–00. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.01.039
Zuloaga O, Prieto A, Ahmed K, Sarkar SK, Bhattacharya A, Chatterjee M, Bhattacharya BD, Satpathy KK (2013) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in recent sediments of Sundarban mangrove wetland of India and Bangladesh: a comparative approach. Environ Earth Sci 68:355–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1743-7
Funding
Financial supports are received from the National Natural Sciences Foundation of China (no. 41601202), the Key Research and Development Project of Shanxi Province (nos. 201803D221002-4 and 201903D321069) and the Fund for Shanxi Higher Education Teaching Reform and Innovation Project (no. 2022-31).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
YZ conceived the sampling, performed analytical methods and data integration, and wrote the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The author declares no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Hongwen Sun
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhao, Y. Spatial distribution, source, and ecological risk of PAHs in the sediment of the Fenhe River Basin, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 112397–112408 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30171-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30171-x