Abstract
As a class of persistent organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely present and accumulate in multimedia environments. The pollution characteristics, spatiotemporal distribution, potential sources, influencing factors, and ecological risks of 16 PAHs were investigated in the water–sediment system of the Hangzhou Bay and outer bay area (HZB and OBA, respectively). The total concentrations of 16 PAHs (∑PAHs) were 220 ± 97.0 and 130 ± 36.0 ng/L in the seawater and 343 ± 179 and 505 ± 415 μg/kg (dry weight) in the sediments of the HZB and OBA, respectively. The pollution level of PAHs in the HZB seawater was higher than that in the OBA seawater, but the opposite result was found in the sediments. Moreover, ∑PAHs exhibited high temporal variability in the HZB seawater (rainy season > dry season), whereas ∑PAHs in the sediments showed no significant difference between seasons. The molecular diagnostic ratio method was used to identify pollution sources and showed that the PAHs in seawater came from different pollution sources (fuel combustion and petroleum), whereas the PAHs in the sediments originated from coincident sources (mixed combustion). Correlation analysis revealed that temperature was positively related to ∑PAHs, whereas salinity was negatively related to seawater ∑PAHs values. Ecological risk assessment demonstrated that the potential for adverse ecological effects was low to moderate in seawater but moderate to high in the sediments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used in the study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Adeleye AO, Jin H, Di Y, Li D, Chen J, Ye Y (2016) Distribution and ecological risk of organic pollutants in the sediments and seafood of Yangtze Estuary and Hangzhou Bay, East China Sea. Sci Total Environ 541:1540–1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.124
Arias AH, Vazquez-Botello A, Tombesi N, Ponce-Velez G, Freije H, Marcovecchio J (2010) Presence, distribution, and origins of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from Bahia Blanca estuary, Argentina. Environ Monit Assess 160:301–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0696-5
Bao K, Zaccone C, Tao Y, Wang J, Shen J, Zhang Y (2020) Source apportionment of priority PAHs in 11 lake sediment cores from Songnen Plain, Northeast China. Water Res 168:115158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115158
Bao C, Huang B, Shao J, Cai Q, Mu Q, Murk AJ (2021) Spatial and temporal distribution of toxic compounds in sediments and potential ecological effects on macrobenthic faunal species in Hangzhou Bay from 2003 to 2015. Mar Pollut Bull 172:112816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112816
Baumard P, Budzinski H, Michon Q, Garrigues P, Burgeot T, Bellocq J (1998) Origin and bioavailability of PAHs in the Mediterranean Sea from mussel and sediment records. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 47:77–90. https://doi.org/10.1006/ecss.1998.0337
Bertrand O, Mondamert L, Grosbois C, Dhivert E, Bourrain X, Labanowski J, Desmet M (2015) Storage and source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments downstream of a major coal district in France. Environ Pollut 207:329–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.028
Cai C, Li J, Wu D, Wang X, Tsang DC, Li X, Sun J, Zhu L, Shen H, Tao S, Liu W (2017) Spatial distribution, emission source and health risk of parent PAHs and derivatives in surface soils from the Yangtze River Delta, eastern China. Chemosphere 178:301–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.057
Cao Z, Liu J, Luan Y, Li Y, Ma M, Xu J, Han S (2010) Distribution and ecosystem risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Luan River, China. Ecotoxicology 19:827–837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-010-0464-5
Cao S, Zhang P, Cai M, Yang Y, Liu Y, Ge L, Ma H (2022) Occurrence, spatial distributions, and ecological risk of pyrethroids in coastal regions of South Yellow and East China Seas. Mar Pollut Bull 179:113725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113725
Chen CW, Chen CF (2011) Distribution, origin, and potential toxicological significance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments of Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan. Mar Pollut Bull 63:417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.04.047
Chen SJ, Gao XJ, Mai BX, Chen ZM, Luo XJ, Sheng GY, Fu JM, Zeng EY (2006) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in surface sediments of the Yangtze River Delta: levels, distribution and potential hydrodynamic influence. Environ Pollut 144:951–957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.01.044
Chen Y (2008) Temporal and spatial distribution, pollution sources and bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in qiantang River. Doctor Thesis, Zhejiang University
Dohmann JF, Thianer JB, Achten C (2019) Ultrasensitive detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal and harbor water using GC-APLI-MS. Mar Pollut Bull 149:110547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110547
Dou W, Zhang Z, Huang W, Wang X, Zhang R, Wu Y, Sun A, Shi X, Chen J (2022) Contaminant occurrence, spatiotemporal variation, and ecological risk of organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in Hangzhou Bay and east China sea ecosystem. Chemosphere 303:135032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135032
Duodu GO, Ogogo KN, Mummullage S, Harden F, Goonetilleke A, Ayoko GA (2017) Source apportionment and risk assessment of PAHs in Brisbane River sediment, Australia. Ecol Ind 73:784–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.10.038
Han D, Currell MJ (2017) Persistent organic pollutants in China’s surface water systems. Sci Total Environ 580:602–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.007
He H, Hu GJ, Sun C, Chen SL, Yang MN, Li J, Zhao Y, Wang H (2011) Trace analysis of persistent toxic substances in the main stream of Jiangsu section of the Yangtze River, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 18:638–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0414-z
Jia T, Guo W, Liu W, Xing Y, Lei R, Wu X, Sun S (2021) Spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the water-sediment system near chemical industry parks in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Sci Total Environ 754:142176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142176
Jiang J-J, Lee C-L, Fang M-D, Liu JT (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments of southwest Taiwan: an appraisal of diagnostic ratios in source recognition. Mar Pollut Bull 58:752–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.12.017
Kalf DF, Crommentuijn T, van de Plassche EJ (1997) Environmental quality objectives for 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 36:89–97. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.1996.1495
Katsoyiannis A (2006) Occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the Soulou stream in the power generation area of Eordea, northwestern Greece. Chemosphere 65:1551–1561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.04.004
Keshavarzifard M, Zakaria MP, Hwai TS, Yusuff FF, Mustafa S, Vaezzadeh V, Magam SM, Masood N, Alkhadher SA, Abootalebi-Jahromi F (2014) Baseline distributions and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface sediments from the Prai and Malacca Rivers, Peninsular Malaysia. Mar Pollut Bull 88:366–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.08.014
Kim KH, Jahan SA, Kabir E, Brown RJ (2013) A review of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects. Environ Int 60:71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.07.019
Kusmierz M, Oleszczuk P, Kraska P, Palys E, Andruszczak S (2016) Persistence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in biochar-amended soil. Chemosphere 146:272–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.010
Li J, Li F (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Yellow River estuary: Levels, sources and toxic potency assessment. Mar Pollut Bull 116:479–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.043
Li J, Dong H, Zhang D, Han B, Zhu C, Liu S, Liu X, Ma Q, Li X (2015a) Sources and ecological risk assessment of PAHs in surface sediments from Bohai Sea and northern part of the Yellow Sea, China. Mar Pollut Bull 96:485–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.05.002
Li P, Cao J, Diao X, Wang B, Zhou H, Han Q, Zheng P, Li Y (2015b) Spatial distribution, sources and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface seawater from Yangpu Bay, China. Mar Pollut Bull 93:53–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.02.015
Li R, Hua P, Zhang J, Krebs P (2020) Effect of anthropogenic activities on the occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in aquatic suspended particulate matter: evidence from Rhine and Elbe Rivers. Water Res 179:115901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115901
Li H, Jiang W, Pan Y, Li F, Wang C, Tian H (2021a) Occurrence and partition of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in water, sediment, and organisms from the eastern sea area of Shandong Peninsula, Yellow Sea, China. Mar Pollut Bull 162:111906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111906
Li W, Zhang Z, Zhang R, Sun A, Lu Y, Chen J, Shi X (2021b) Spatiotemporal occurrence, sources and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a typical mariculture ecosystem. Water Res 204:117632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117632
Li Z, Liu Y, Zhang D, Feng L, He X, Duan X, Li X, Xie H (2022) Distribution and environmental risk assessment of microplastics in continental shelf sediments in the southern East China Sea: a high-spatial-resolution survey. Mar Pollut Bull 177:113548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113548
Li D, Xin X, Zhou S (2023) Integrated governance of the Yangtze River Delta port cluster using niche theory: a case study of Shanghai Port and Ningbo-Zhoushan Port. Ocean Coast Manag 234:106474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106474
Lin T, Hu L, Guo Z, Zhang G, Yang Z (2013) Deposition fluxes and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Yangtze River estuarine-inner shelf in the East China Sea. Global Biogeochem Cycles 27:77–87. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GB004317
Malik A, Verma P, Singh AK, Singh KP (2011) Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water and bed sediments of the Gomti River, India. Environ Monit Assess 172:529–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1352-4
Men B, He M, Tan L, Lin C, Quan X (2009) Distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Daliao River Estuary of Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea (China). Mar Pollut Bull 58:818–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.01.022
Mitra S, Bianchi TS (2003) A preliminary assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon distributions in the lower Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico. Mar Chem 82:273–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4203(03)00074-4
Montuori P, Aurino S, Garzonio F, Sarnacchiaro P, Nardone A, Triassi M (2016) Distribution, sources and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water and sediments from Tiber River and estuary, Italy. Sci Total Environ 566–567:1254–1267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.183
Rachwal M, Magiera T, Wawer M (2015) Coke industry and steel metallurgy as the source of soil contamination by technogenic magnetic particles, heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Chemosphere 138:863–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.11.077
Ranjbar Jafarabadi A, Riyahi Bakhtiari A, Shadmehri Toosi A (2017) Comprehensive and comparative ecotoxicological and human risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in reef surface sediments and coastal seawaters of Iranian Coral Islands, Persian Gulf. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 145:640–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.08.016
Rokhbar M, Keshavarzi B, Moore F, Zarei M, Hooda PS, Risk MJ (2023) Occurrence and source of PAHs in Miankaleh International Wetland in Iran. Chemosphere 321:138140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138140
Sarria-Villa R, Ocampo-Duque W, Paez M, Schuhmacher M (2016) Presence of PAHs in water and sediments of the Colombian Cauca River during heavy rain episodes, and implications for risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 540:455–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.020
Shen H, Huang Y, Wang R, Zhu D, Li W, Shen G, Wang B, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Lu Y, Chen H, Li T, Sun K, Li B, Liu W, Liu J, Tao S (2013) Global atmospheric emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from 1960 to 2008 and future predictions. Environ Sci Technol 47:6415–6424. https://doi.org/10.1021/es400857z
Snyder SM, Pulster EL, Wetzel DL, Murawski SA (2015) PAH exposure in Gulf of Mexico demersal fishes, post-Deepwater Horizon. Environ Sci Technol 49:8786–8795. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01870
Tang G, Liu M, Zhou Q, He H, Chen K, Zhang H, Hu J, Huang Q, Luo Y, Ke H, Chen B, Xu X, Cai M (2018) Microplastics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Xiamen coastal areas: implications for anthropogenic impacts. Sci Total Environ 634:811–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.336
Teodora Ciucure C, Geana EI, Lidia Chitescu C, Laurentiu Badea S, Elena Ionete R (2022) Distribution, sources and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in waters and sediments from Olt River dam reservoirs in Romania. Chemosphere 311:137024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137024
Tong Y, Chen L, Liu Y, Wang Y, Tian S (2019) Distribution, sources and ecological risk assessment of PAHs in surface seawater from coastal Bohai Bay, China. Mar Pollut Bull 142(520–524):520–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.04.004
Unlu S, Alpar B (2006) Distribution and sources of hydrocarbons in surface sediments of Gemlik Bay (Marmara Sea, Turkey). Chemosphere 64:764–777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.10.064
Wang XC, Sun S, Ma HQ, Liu Y (2006) Sources and distribution of aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao, China. Mar Pollut Bull 52:129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.08.010
Wang X, Xu H, Zhou Y, Wu C, Kanchanopas-Barnette P (2015) Distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from Zhoushan Archipelago and Xiangshan Harbor, East China Sea. Mar Pollut Bull 101:895–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.073
Wang C, Zou X, Gao J, Zhao Y, Yu W, Li Y, Song Q (2016) Pollution status of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the Yangtze River Estuary and its adjacent coastal zone. Chemosphere 162:80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.075
Wang N, Wang YP, Duan X, Wang J, Xie Y, Dong C, Gao J, Yin P (2020) Controlling factors for the distribution of typical organic pollutants in the surface sediment of a macrotidal bay. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 27:28276–28287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09199-w
Wang LY, Gu YY, Zhang ZM, Sun AL, Shi XZ, Chen J, Lu Y (2021) Contaminant occurrence, mobility and ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in the sediment-water system of the Hangzhou Bay. Sci Total Environ 770:144705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.075
Xia W, Liang B, Chen L, Zhu Y, Gao M, Chen J, Wang F, Chen Y, Tian M (2022) Atmospheric wet and dry depositions of polycyclic aromatic compounds in a megacity of Southwest China. Environ Res 204:112151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112151
Xie D, Wang Z, Gao S, De Vriend HJ (2009) Modeling the tidal channel morphodynamics in a macro-tidal embayment, Hangzhou Bay, China. Cont Shelf Res 29:1757–1767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2009.03.009
Xie YW, Chen LJ, Liu R, Tian JP (2018) AOX contamination in Hangzhou Bay, China: levels, distribution and point sources. Environ Pollut 235:462–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.089
Xu L, Zhang B, Hu Q, Liu Y, Shang T, Zeng X, Yu Z (2021) Occurrence and spatio-seasonal distribution of organophosphate tri- and di-esters in surface water from Dongting Lake and their potential biological risk. Environ Pollut 282:117031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117031
Yan JJ (2021) Two foreign vessels collide and spill oil into our sea area. The procuratorial organ supports prosecution. The Procuratorate Daily 9617, 001. https://doi.org/10.28407/n.cnki.njcrb.2021.003895
Yuan H-W, Chen J-F, Ye Y, Lou Z-H, Jin A-M, Chen X-G, Jiang Z-P, Lin Y-S, Chen C-TA, Loh PS (2017) Sources and distribution of sedimentary organic matter along the Andong salt marsh, Hangzhou Bay. J Mar Syst 174:78–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.06.001
Yunker MB, Backus SM, Graf Pannatier E, Jeffries DS, Macdonald RW (2002) sources and significance of alkane and PAH hydrocarbons in Canadian arctic rivers. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 55:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1006/ecss.2001.0880
Zhang M, Sun X, Xu J (2020) Heavy metal pollution in the East China Sea: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 159:111473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111473
Zhang ZM, Wang LY, Gu YY, Sun AL, You JJ, Shi XZ, Chen J (2021) Probing the contamination characteristics, mobility, and risk assessments of typical plastic additive-phthalate esters from a typical coastal aquaculture area, China. J Hazard Mater 416:125931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125931
Zhao X, Ding J, You H (2014) Spatial distribution and temporal trends of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water and sediment from Songhua River, China. Environ Geochem Health 36:131–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9524-0
Zhao Z, Gong X, Zhang L, Jin M, Cai Y, Wang X (2021) Riverine transport and water-sediment exchange of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) along the middle-lower Yangtze River, China. J Hazard Mater 403:123973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123973
Zhao Z, Yao X, Ding Q, Gong X, Wang J, Tahir S, Kimirei IA, Zhang L (2022) A comprehensive evaluation of organic micropollutants (OMPs) pollution and prioritization in equatorial lakes from mainland Tanzania, East Africa. Water Res 217:118400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118400
Zhou JL, Hong M, Zhang Z, Maskaoui K, Chen W (2000) Multi-phase distribution of organic micropollutants in Xiamen Harbour, China. Water Res 34:2132–2150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00360-7
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the boatman “Zhe Lu Yu Gong 99001” for their support during the sampling campaign.
Funding
This work was supported by the Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (2022C02028), the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LQ21D060003), Ningbo Science and Technology Bureau (2021S065, 2022J079), Major Scientific and Technological Project of Ningbo (2021Z102).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Yu-Yao Wu, Ze-Ming Zhang, Rong-Rong Zhang, and Ai-Li Sun. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Yu-Yao Wu, and revised it critically for important intellectual content by Ze-Ming Zhang, Huang Wei, and Xi-Zhi Shi. The manuscript was approved the version to be published by Ai-Li Sun, Jiong Chen, and Xi-Zhi Shi. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript, and Ai-Li Sun and Xi-Zhi Shi agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: V.V.S.S. Sarma
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, Y., Zhang, Z., Huang, W. et al. Environmental profile, potential sources, and ecological risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a typical coastal bay and outer bay area. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 77757–77770 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27885-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27885-3