Abstract
The hydrosphere although covering almost 70% of the Earth contributes only 3% of fresh water out of which groundwater covers almost 98%. The presence of some unwanted substance in this limited natural resource causes pollution when the substance causes serious harm to human beings and to the total ecosystem in a way. Arsenic is such a pollutant that is most naturally released in groundwater and long-term exposure to As-rich groundwater causes skin lesions and often leads to different types of cancers in humans. Rupnagar district in the Malwa region of Punjab is situated alongside the river Satluj which is one of the five important tributaries of Indus. The lowest reported concentration of As in this district is 10 µg/L and the highest is 91 µg/L. The higher values of As (> 50 µg/L) that are above the permissible limit of IS 10500, 2004 in drinking water, are dominantly found in the western and south-western parts of the district. The average hazard quotient (HQ) indicates high risk for the consumers of the As-polluted groundwater in the district. The present study deals with the major cause of high arsenic (As) concentration in groundwater and its correlation with intensive agriculture in the Rupnagar district. Owing to the large size of the district, GIS techniques like ArcGIS 10.4.1 and QGIS 3.22.8 software were used for analysis in this study. The study reveals that high As concentration (> 50 µg/L) is mostly found in agricultural lands and moderate concentration of As (10–50 µg/L) in groundwater is distributed all over the district and are mostly reported from the urbanised areas. Overall, the water table shows a declining trend but no such decline is observed in the western and south-western parts of the district. As pollution in groundwater can also be caused due to water level decline owing to intensive agriculture and rapid water abstraction though As is naturally sourced in groundwater. A detailed study using the geochemical analysis of groundwater in the district can be effective in clearing out the scenario in the study area.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data used in this paper has been made available by Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (DWSS), Govt. of Punjab, from its Regional Water Testing Laboratory (RWTL) based in Phase II, Mohali (Punjab).
Change history
30 May 2023
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27841-1
References
Acharyya SK (2005) Arsenic levels in groundwater from Quaternary alluvium in the Ganga Plain and Bengal Basin, Indian subcontinent: insights into influence of stratigraphy. Gondwana Res 8(1):55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70262-8
Ahmed KM, Bhattacharya P, Hasan MA, Akhter SH, Alam SM, Bhuyian MH, Imam MB, Khan AA, Sracek O (2004) Arsenic enrichment in groundwater of the alluvial aquifers in Bangladesh: an overview. Appl Geochem 19(2):181–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2003.09.006
Ali W, Aslam MW, Feng C, Junaid M, Ali K, Li S, Chen Z, Yu Z, Rasool A, Zhang H (2019) Unraveling prevalence and public health risks of arsenic, uranium and co-occurring trace metals in groundwater along riverine ecosystem in Sindh and Punjab, Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 41:2223–2238. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10653-019-00278-7
Apambire WB, Boyle DR, Michel FA (1997) Geochemistry, genesis, and health implications of fluoriferous groundwaters in the upper regions of Ghana. Environ Geol 33:13–24
Baig JA, Kazi TG, Shah AQ, Kandhro GA, Afridi HI, Arain MB, Jamali MK, Jalbani N (2009) Speciation and evaluation of arsenic in surface water and groundwater samples: a multivariate case study. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 73(5):914–923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2010.01.002
Baweja S, Aggarwal R, Brar M (2017) Groundwater depletion in Punjab, India. Encyclopedia of Soil Science, Third Edition: Three Volume Set. https://doi.org/10.1081/E-ESS3-120052901
Bonsor HC, MacDonald AM, Ahmed KM, Burgess WG, Basharat M, Calow RC, Dixit A, Foster SSD, Gopal K, Lapworth DJ, Moench M, Mukherjee A, Rao MS, Shamsudduha M, Smith L, Taylor RG, Tucker J, Steenbergen FV, Yadav SK, Zahid A (2017) Hydrogeological typologies of the Indo-Gangetic basin alluvial aquifer, South Asia. Hydrogeol J 25(5):1377–1406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1550-z
Book (2009) Exposure factors handbook: 2009 Edition, USEPA
Bortey-Sam N, Shouta MMN, Yoshinori I, Osei A, Elvis B, Hazuki M (2015) Mayumi I (2015) Health risk assessment of heavy metals and metalloid in drinking water from communities near gold mines in Tarkwa. Ghana. Environ MonitAssess 187:397
Brahman KD, Kazi TG, Afridi HI, Naseem S, Arain SS, Wadhwa SK, Shah F (2013) Simultaneously evaluate the toxic levels of fluoride and arsenic species in underground water of Tharparkar and possible contaminant sources: a multivariate study. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 89:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.11.023
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) (2016) Ground Water Year Book, Punjab
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) (2020) National Compilation on DYNAMIC GROUND WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board, 2014) (2014) Dynamic ground water resources of India (As on 31st March 2011)
Chakraborti D, Rahman MM, Mukherjee A, Alauddin M, Hassan M, Dutta RN, Pati S, Mukherjee SC, Roy S, Quamruzzmani Q, Rahman M, Morshed S, Islam T, Sorif S, Selim M, Islam MR, Hossain MM (2015) Groundwater arsenic contamination in Bangladesh—21 years of research. J Trace Elem Med Biol 31:237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2015.01.003
Chopra RPS, Krishan G (2014) Assessment of ground water quality in Punjab, India. J Earth Sci Clim Chang 05(10). https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000243
Farooqi A, Masuda H, Firdous N (2007) Toxic fluoride and arsenic contaminated groundwater in the Lahore and Kasur districts, Punjab, Pakistan and possible contaminant sources. Environ Pollut 145(3):839–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.05.007
Gulens J, Champ DR, Jackson RE (1979) Influence of redox environments on the mobility of arsenic. In: Ground Water, Chemical Modeling in Aqueous Systems, Chapter 4, Vol. 93. ACS Symposium Series, pp 81–95
Gupta S (2009) Ground water management in alluvial areas. Depleting Ground Water Resources of Punjab
Javed A, Baig ZU, Farooqi A (2021) Arsenic contamination of irrigation wells and associated human health hazards in the Punjab plains of Pakistan. Environ Technol Innov 23:101678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101678
Kaur N, Paikaray S (2021) Arsenic-rich surface and groundwater around eastern parts of Rupnagar District, Punjab, India. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, P. K. Shit et al. (eds.), Spatial Modeling and Assessment of Environmental Contaminants, Environmental Challenges and Solutions. Chapter 21, 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63422-3_21
Kent DB, Fox PM (2004) The influence of groundwater chemistry on arsenic concentrations and speciation in a quartz sand and gravel aquifer. Geochem Trans 5(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1738211
Kim KW, Chanpiwat P, Hanh HT, Phan K, Sthiannopkao S (2011) Review paper - Arsenic geochemistry of groundwater in Southeast Asia. Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-011-0158-2
Krishan G, Rao MS, Loyal RS, Lohania AK, Tulib NK, Takshic KS, Kumara CP, Kumar SP (2014) Groundwater level analyses of Punjab, India: a quantitative approach. Octa J Environ Res 2(3):221–226
Krishan G, Taloor AK, Sudarsan N, Bhattacharya P, Kumar S, Ghosh NC, Singh S, Sharma A, Rao MS, Mittal S, Sidhu BS, Vasisth R, Kour R (2021a) Occurrences of potentially toxic trace metals in groundwater of the state of Punjab in northern India. Groundw Sustain Dev 15:100655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100655
Krishan G, Kumar B, Sudarsan N, Rao MS, Ghosh NC, Taloor AK, Bhattacharya P, Singh S, Kumar CP, Sharma A, Jain SK, Sidhu BS, Kumar S, Vasisht R (2021b) Isotopes (δ18O, δD and 3H) variations in groundwater with emphasis on salinization in the state of Punjab. India. Sci Total Environ 789:148051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148051
Kumar R, Vaid U, Mittal S (2017) Water crisis: issues and challenges in Punjab. Water Science and Technology Library 93–103
Kumar A, Singh CK (2019) Arsenic enrichment in groundwater and associated health risk in Bari doab region of Indus basin, Punjab, India. Environ Pollut 113324:0269–7491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113324
Lapworth DJ, MacDonald AM, Krishan G, Rao MS, Gooddy DC, Darling WG (2015) Groundwater recharge and age-depth profiles of intensively exploited groundwater resources in northwest India. Geophys Res Lett 42(18):7554–7562. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL065798
Lapworth DJ, Krishan G, MacDonald AM, Rao MS (2017) Groundwater quality in the alluvial aquifer system of northwest India: new evidence of the extent of anthropogenic and geogenic contamination. Sci Total Environ 599–600(2017):1433–1444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.223
MacAllister DJ, Krishan G, Basharat M, Cuba D, MacDonald AM (2022) A century of groundwater accumulation in Pakistan and northwest India. Nat Geosc
McArthur JM (2018) Arsenic in groundwater, Groundwater Development and Management. In: Sikdar PK (ed) Issues and Challenges in South Asia. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland and Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India, pp 297–308
MacDonald AM, Bonsor HC, Ahmed KM, Burgess WG, Basharat M, Calow RC, Dixit A, Foster SSD, Gopal K, Lapworth DJ, Lark RM, Moench M, Mukherjee A, Rao MS, Shamsudduha M, Smith L, Taylor RG, Tucker J, Steenbergen FV, Yadav SK (2016) Groundwater quality and depletion in the Indo-Gangetic Basin mapped from in situ observations. Nat Geosc 9:762–766. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2791
Mundle S, Sikdar S (2019) Inclusive fiscal adjustment for reviving growth: Assessing the 2019–20 Budget. Economic and Political Weekly 54(38):32–36
Nickson RT, McArthur JM, Ravenscroft P, Burgess WG, Ahmed KM (2000) Mechanism of arsenic release to groundwater, Bangladesh and West Bengal. Appl Geochem 15(4):403–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(99)00086-4
Nickson RT, McArthur JM, Shrestha B, Kyaw-Myint TO, Lowry D (2005) Arsenic and other drinking water quality issues, Muzaffargarh District. Pakistan. Appl Geochem 20(1):55–68
Oinam JD, Ramanathan A, Linda A, Singh G (2010) A study of arsenic, iron and other dissolved ion variations in the groundwater of Bishnupur District, Manipur, India. Environ Earth Sci 62(6):1183–1195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-010-0607-2
Podgorski JE, Eqani SAMAS, Khanam T, Ullah R, Shen H, Berg M (2017) Extensive arsenic contamination in high-pH unconfined aquifers in the Indus Valley. Sci Adv 3(8):e1700935. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700935
Rasool A, Xiao TF, Baig ZT, Masood S, Mostofa KMG, Iqbal M (2015) Arsenic in groundwater and its health risk assessment in drinking water of Mailsi Punjab Pakistan. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 1(22):187–202
Ravenscroft A (2001) Designing E-learning Interactions in the 21st Century: revisiting and rethinking the role of theory. Europe J Educ 36(2):133–156
Roychowdhury T, Tokunaga H, Ando M (2003) Survey of arsenic and other heavy metals in food composites and drinking water and estimation of dietary intake by the villagers from an arsenic-affected area of West Bengal, India. Sci Total Environ 308(1–3):15–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00612-5
Saha D, Ray RK (2018) Groundwater resources of India: potential, challenges and management. Groundw Dev Manag 19–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75115-3_2
Singh CK, Shashtri S, Avtar R, Mukherjee S, Singh SK (2010) Monitoring change in land use and land cover in Rupnagar district of Punjab, India using Landsat and IRS LISS III satellite data. Ecol Quest 13:73–79. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10090%E2%80%93010%E2%80%930018%E2%80%938
USEPA (1992) Guidelines for exposure assessment. EPA/600/Z-92/001. US Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC
USEPA (1997) Guiding principles for Monte Carlo analysis. Risk Assessment Forum. Environmental Protection Agency Washington (DC), U.S. EPA/630/R-97/001
USEPA (1999) National air quality and emissions trends report. Emissions Monitoring and Analysis Division Air Quality Trends Analysis Group
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2015) Watershed assessment, tracking & environmental results. National Probable Sources Contribution to Impairments
Vashisht A K (2008) Status of water resources in Punjab and its management strategies. J Indian Water Resour Soc 28(3)
Virk HS (2019a) Groundwater contamination of Amritsar District of Punjab due to heavy metals iron and arsenic and its mitigation. Res Rev: A J Toxicol 9(2):18–27
Virk HS (2019b) Uranium content anomalies in groundwater of Patiala District of Punjab (India) for the assessment of excess cancer risk. Res Rev: J Oncol Hematol 8(2):13–19p
Virk HS (2020) Groundwater contamination in Punjab due to arsenic, selenium and uranium heavy metals. Res Rev: A J Toxicol 10(1):1–7
Vogel JC, Talma AS, Heaton THE (1981) Gaseous nitrogen as evidence for denitrification in groundwater. J Hydrol 50:191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(81)90069-X
Wongsasuluk P, Chotpantarat S, Siriwong W, Robson M (2013) Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Environ Geochem Health 36(1):169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9537-8
Acknowledgements
Thanks to DWSS (Department of Water Supply and Sanitation), Punjab for providing the Arsenic concentration data of Rupnagar district. We also thank the Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Punjab for supply of the water level data. Thanks to the Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee and Head of the Groundwater Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee for helping the authors carry out the study.
Funding
Funding received by Srijita Ghosh for her internship at National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee from July to August, 2022 is duly acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Gopal Krishan is responsible for conceptualization of this paper and helping the corresponding author for its planning and execution. Srijita Ghosh focused on writing this paper and analysis of the data using statistical and modelling techniques. Hardev Singh Virk is responsible for collection and curation of data used in the paper and its revision. All authors have worked as a team in planning its execution.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
I have not submitted my manuscript to a preprint server before submitting it to Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
All the authors give their consent to participate equally in this endeavour.
Consent to publish
All of the authors give their consent to publish this work.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Severine Le Faucheur
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
11356_2023_27247_MOESM1_ESM.docx
Supplementary data table As concentration in different villages in the study area (green indicates As <= 10µg/L, concentration in yellow indicates 10 < As < 50 and concentrations in red indicates As >= 50µg/L) (DOCX 30 KB)
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Krishan, G., Ghosh, S. & Virk, H.S. Arsenic pollution and associated human health hazards in Rupnagar district, Punjab, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 69258–69273 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27247-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27247-z