Abstract
Wastewater containing a high concentration of chloride ions (Cl− ions) generated in industrial production will corrode equipment and pipelines and cause environmental problems. At present, systematic research on Cl− removal by electrocoagulation is scarce. To study the Cl− removal mechanism, process parameters (current density and plate spacing), and the influence of coexisting ions on the removal of Cl− in electrocoagulation, we use aluminum (Al) as the sacrificial anode, combined with physical characterization and density functional theory (DFT) to study Cl− removal by electrocoagulation. The result showed that the use of electrocoagulation technology to remove Cl− can reduce the concentration of Cl− in an aqueous solution below 250 ppm, meeting the Cl− emission standard. The mechanism of Cl− removal is mainly co-precipitation and electrostatic adsorption by forming chlorine-containing metal hydroxyl complexes. The current density and plate spacing affect the Cl− removal effect and operation cost. As a coexisting cation, magnesium ion (Mg2+) promotes the removal of Cl−, while calcium ion (Ca2+) inhibits it. Fluoride ion (F−), sulfate (SO42−), and nitrate (NO3−) as coexisting anions affect the removal of Cl− ions through competitive reaction. This work provides a theoretical basis for the industrialization of Cl− removal by electrocoagulation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abdel-Shafy HI, Shoeib MA, El-Khateeb MA, Youssef AO, Hafez OM (2020) Electrochemical treatment of industrial cooling tower blowdown water using magnesium-rod electrode. Water Resour Indus 23:100121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2019.100121
Amarasooriya AAGD, Kawakami T (2019) Electrolysis removal of fluoride by magnesium ion-assisted sacrificial iron electrode and the effect of coexisting ions. J Environ Chem Eng 7(3):103084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103084
Aoudj S, Khelifa A, Drouiche N, Hecini M (2013) HF wastewater remediation by electrocoagulation process. Desalin Water Treat 51(7–9):1596–1602. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.714584
Arroyo MG, Perez-Herranz V, Montanes MT, Garcia-Anton J, Guinon JL (2009) Effect of pH and chloride concentration on the removal of hexavalent chromium in a batch electrocoagulation reactor. J Hazard Mater 169(1–3):1127–1133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.04.089
Babu DS, Kadaverugu R, Nidheesh PV, Kumar MS (2020) Importance of chloride addition on arsenite removal by aluminium electrocoagulation. ChemistrySelect 5(34):10567–10573. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202002769
Campione A, Gurreri L, Ciofalo M, Micale G, Tamburini A, Cipollina A (2018) Electrodialysis for water desalination: a critical assessment of recent developments on process fundamentals, models and applications. Desalination 434:121–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.12.044
Chang J, Li Y, Duan F, Su C, Li Y, Cao H (2020) Selective removal of chloride ions by bismuth electrode in capacitive deionization. Sep Purif Technol 240:116600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116600
Chen G (2004) Electrochemical technologies in wastewater treatment. Sep Purif Technol 38:11–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2003.10.006
Cui L, Li G, Li Y, Yang B, Zhang L, Dong Y, Ma C (2017) Electrolysis-electrodialysis process for removing chloride ion in wet flue gas desulfurization wastewater (DW): influencing factors and energy consumption analysis. Chem Eng Res Des 123:240–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2017.05.016
Daniel R, Bindu VH, Rao AVSP, Anjaneyulu Y (2008) Removal of arsenic from wastewaters using electrocoagulation. J Environ Sci Eng 50:283–288
Daniel R, Krupadam RJ, Anjaneyulu Y (2007) Electrocoagulation: a cleaner method for treatment of Cr (VI) from electroplating industrial effluents. Indian J Chem Techn 14:240–245
Daniel R, Rao AVSP (2012) An efficient removal of arsenic from industrial effluents using electro-coagulation as clean technology option. Int J Environ Res 6(3):711–718
Das D, Nandi BK (2018) Defluoridization of drinking water by electrocoagulation (EC): process optimization and kinetic study. J Disper Sci Technol 40(8):1136–1146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2018.1496840
Dewangan JK, Basu N, Chowdhury M (2021) Cationic surfactant-directed structural control of NaCl crystals from evaporating sessile droplets. Soft Matter 18(1):62–79. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1sm01357b
Donneys-Victoria D, Marriaga-Cabrales N, Machuca-Martínez F, Benavides-Guerrero J, Cloutier SG (2020) Indigo carmine and chloride ions removal by electrocoagulation. Simultaneous production of brucite and layered double hydroxides. J Water Process Eng 33:101106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.101106
Drouiche N, Aoudj S, Hecini M, Ghaffour N, Lounici H, Mameri N (2009) Study on the treatment of photovoltaic wastewater using electrocoagulation: fluoride removal with aluminium electrodes – characteristics of products. J Hazard Mater 169(1–3):65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.073
Emamjomeh MM, Sivakumar M (2009) Review of pollutants removed by electrocoagulation and electrocoagulation/flotation processes. J Environ Manage 90(5):1663–1679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.011
Garcia-Segura S, Eiband MMSG, de Melo JV, Martínez-Huitle CA (2017) Electrocoagulation and advanced electrocoagulation processes: a general review about the fundamentals, emerging applications and its association with other technologies. J Electroanal Chem 801:267–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.07.047
Ghosh D, Medhi CR, Purkait MK (2011) Techno-economic analysis for the electrocoagulation of fluoride-contaminated drinking water. Toxicol Environ Chem 93(3):424–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2010.542158
Govindan K, Raja M, Uma Maheshwari S, Noel M, Oren Y (2015) Comparison and understanding of fluoride removal mechanism in Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ion assisted electrocoagulation process using Fe and Al electrodes. J Environ Chem Eng 3(3):1784–1793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2015.06.014
Guo J, Zhou Z, Ming Q, Huang Z, Zhu J, Zhang S, Xu J, Xi J, Zhao Q, Zhao X (2022) Recovering precipitates from dechlorination process of saline wastewater as poly aluminum chloride. Chem Eng J 427:131612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131612
Guseva O, Schmutz P, Suter T, von Trzebiatowski O (2009) Modelling of anodic dissolution of pure aluminium in sodium chloride. Electrochim Acta 54(19):4514–4524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2009.03.048
Hafez OM, Shoeib MA, El-Khateeb MA, Abdel-Shafy HI, Youssef AO (2018) Removal of scale forming species from cooling tower blowdown water by electrocoagulation using different electrodes. Chem Eng Res Des 136:347–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2018.05.043
Hanay O, Hasar H (2011) Effect of anions on removing Cu2+, Mn2+ and Zn2+ in electrocoagulation process using aluminum electrodes. J Hazard Mater 189(1–2):572–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.02.073
Hilal N, Kochkodan V, Al Abdulgader H, Mandale S, Al-Jlil SA (2015) A combined ion exchange–nanofiltration process for water desalination: I. sulphate–chloride ion-exchange in saline solutions. Desalination 363:44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.11.016
Hu CY, Lo SL, Kuan WH (2003) Effects of coexisting anions on fluoride removal in electrocoagulation (EC) process using aluminum electrodes. Water Res 37(18):4513–4523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00378-6
Hu CY, Lo SL, Kuan WH (2014) High concentration of arsenate removal by electrocoagulation with calcium. Sep Purif Technol 126:7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2014.02.015
Hu Y, Chen Y, He K, Ye X, Liu S (2017) Simultaneous removal of Ni(II) and fluoride from a real flue gas desulfurization wastewater by electrocoagulation using Fe/C/Al electrode. J Water Reuse Desal 7(3):288–297. https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2016.010
Ji W, Niu J, Zhang W, Li X, Yan W, Hao X, Wang Z (2022) An electroactive ion exchange hybrid film with collaboratively-driven ability for electrochemically-mediated selective extraction of chloride ions. Chem Eng J 427:130807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130807
Jing G, Ren S, Pooley S, Sun W, Kowalczuk PB, Gao Z (2021) Electrocoagulation for industrial wastewater treatment: an updated review. Environ Sci-Wat Res 7(7):1177–1196. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ew00158b
Jo E, Park S, Yeo I, Cha J, Lee J, Kim Y, Lee T, Park C (2015) A study on the removal of sulfate and nitrate from the wet scrubber wastewater using electrocoagulation. Desalin Water Treat 57(17):7833–7840. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1028461
Li PP, Peng CS, Li FM, Song SX, Juan AO (2011) Copper and nickel recovery from electroplating sludge by the process of acid-leaching and electro-depositing. Int J Environ Res 5(3):797–804
Li X, Tan W, Lu J, Zhang H, Li H (2019) Removal of Cl- from WFGD wastewater by electrocoagulation using layered double hydroxide compounds as granule electrodes. Int J Electrochem Sci 14(8):8296–8310. https://doi.org/10.20964/2019.08.101
Liu H, Wu Y, Li M, Ma H, Li M, Zhu K, Jian Z, Chen G, Wang Z, Wang S (2021) Electrocoagulation pre-treatment to simultaneously remove dissolved and colloidal substances and Ca2+ in old corrugated container wastewater. Chemosphere 268:128851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128851
Lu J, Ma M, Li D, Xu S (2020) Experimental study on chloride ion removal in high-salt wastewater system. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 495:012065. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/495/1/012065
Lv L, Sun P, Gu Z, Du H, Pang X, Tao X, Xu R, Xu L (2009) Removal of chloride ion from aqueous solution by ZnAl-NO3 layered double hydroxides as anion-exchanger. J Hazard Mater 161(2–3):1444–1449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.114
Mehri M, Fallah N, Nasernejad B (2022) Influence of salinity on heavy metal and oil removal from hypersaline oilfield-produced water by electrocoagulation: mechanistic insights. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(16):23619–23638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17253-4
Min X, Zhu M, He Y, Wang Y, Deng H, Wang S, Jin L, Wang H, Zhang L, Chai L (2020) Selective removal of Cl- and F- from complex solution via electrochemistry deionization with bismuth/reduced graphene oxide composite electrode. Chemosphere 251:126319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126319
Montero-Ocampo C, Villafañe FM (2010) Effect of dissolved species on the fluoride electro-removal from groundwater. ECS Trans 28(16):57–65. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3490302
Oulebsir A, Chaabane T, Tounsi H, Omine K, Sivasankar V, Flilissa A, Darchen A (2020) Treatment of artificial pharmaceutical wastewater containing amoxicillin by a sequential electrocoagulation with calcium salt followed by nanofiltration. J Environ Chem Eng 8(6):104597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104597
Peng J, Tan H, Yu P (2021) Optimization of chloride ion removal from desulfurization wastewater by electrocatalysis progress: application of Box-Behnken design. Desalin Water Treat 221:76–84. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.27059
Pugazhenthiran N, Gupta SS, Prabhath A, Manikandan M, Swathy JR, Raman VK, Pradeep T (2015) Cellulose derived graphenic fibers for capacitive desalination of brackish water. ACS Appl Mater Inter 7(36):20156–20163. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b05510
Rapp HJ, Pfromm PH (1998) Electrodialysis for chloride removal from the chemical recovery cycle of a Kraft pulp mill. J Membrane Sci 146(2):249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7388(98)00122-7
Shao W, Chen Y, Xie F, Zhang H, Wang H, Chang N (2020) Facile construction of a ZIF-67/AgCl/Ag heterojunction via chemical etching and surface ion exchange strategy for enhanced visible light driven photocatalysis. RSC Adv 10(63):38174–38183. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ra06842j
Shen F, Chen X, Gao P, Chen G (2003) Electrochemical removal of fluoride ions from industrial wastewater. Chem Eng Sci 58(3–6):987–993. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-8947(00)00210-2
Song W, Zhai H, Ji W, Li Y, Guo C, Wang D, Wang R (2022) Poly(aluminum chloride) shell-desensitized cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine explosive core. Mater Chem Phys 276:125335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.125335
Tchamango SR, Ngayo KW, Belibi PDB, Nkouam F, Ngassoum MB (2020) Treatment of a dairy effluent by classical electrocoagulation and indirect electrocoagulation with aluminum electrodes. Sep Sci Technol 56(6):1128–1139. https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2020.1748889
Trompette JL, Vergnes H (2009) On the crucial influence of some supporting electrolytes during electrocoagulation in the presence of aluminum electrodes. J Hazard Mater 163(2–3):1282–1288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.07.148
Tzoupanos ND, Zouboulis AI, Tsoleridis CA (2009) A systematic study for the characterization of a novel coagulant (polyaluminium silicate chloride). Colloid Surface A 342(1–3):30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2009.03.054
Un UT, Koparal AS, Ogutveren UB (2013) Fluoride removal from water and wastewater with a bach cylindrical electrode using electrocoagulation. Chem Eng J 223:110–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.02.126
Wang Y, Lin H, Jin F, Niu J, Zhao J, Bi Y, Li Y (2016) Electrocoagulation mechanism of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) on a zinc anode: influence of cathodes and anions. Sci Total Environ 557–558:542–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.114
Weiss SF, Christensen ML, Jørgensen MK (2021) Mechanisms behind pH changes during electrocoagulation. AICHE J 67(11):e17384. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.17384
Wellner DB, Couperthwaite SJ, Millar GJ (2018) Influence of operating parameters during electrocoagulation of sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate solutions using aluminium electrodes. J Water Process Eng 22:13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2017.12.014
Wu D, Hu Y, Liu Y, Zhang R (2021) Review of chloride ion detection technology in water. Appl Sci 11(23):11137. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311137
Xu K, Peng J, Chen P, Gu W, Luo Y, Yu P (2019) Preparation and characterization of porous Ti/SnO2–Sb2O3/PbO2 electrodes for the removal of chloride ions in water. Processes 7(10):762. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7100762
Xu T, Zhou Y, Hu B, Lei X, Yu G (2020) Comparison between sinusoidal AC coagulation and conventional DC coagulation in removing Cu2+ from printed circuit board wastewater. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 197:110629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110629
Ye X, Zhao X, Ming Q, Zhu J, Guo J, Sun D, Zhang S, Xu J, Zhou Z (2021) Process optimization to enhance utilization efficiency of precipitants for chloride removal from flue gas desulfurization wastewater via Friedel’s salt precipitation. J Environ Manage 299:113682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113682
Yu Y, Zhong Y, Wang M, Guo Z (2021) Electrochemical behavior of aluminium anode in super-gravity field and its application in copper removal from wastewater by electrocoagulation. Chemosphere 272:129614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129614
Zhang L, Lv P, He Y, Li S, Peng J, Zhang L, Chen K, Yin S (2021a) Ultrasound-assisted cleaning chloride from wastewater using Friedel’s salt precipitation. J Hazard Mater 403:123545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123545
Zhang Y, Zhao E, Cui X, Zhu W, Han X, Yu G, Wang Y (2021b) Removal of organic compounds from shale gas fracturing flowback water by an integrated electrocoagulation and electro-peroxone process. Sep Purif Technol 265:118496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118496
Zhi S, Zhang K (2016) Hardness removal by a novel electrochemical method. Desalination 381:8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.12.002
Zhou F, Hu B, Cui B, Liu F, Liu F, Wang W, Liu Y, Lu R, Hu Y, Zhang Y, Wu J (2014) Preparation and characteristics of polyaluminium chloride by utilizing fluorine-containing waste acidic mother liquid from clay-brine synthetic cryolite process. J Chem-Ny 2014:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/274126
Funding
This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi (201901D111084).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Zirui Wang: investigation, writing – original draft. Xiaowei An: investigation, writing – review and editing. Peifen Wang: investigation. Xiao Du: investigation. Xiaogang Hao: conceptualization, methodology. Xiaoqiong Hao: investigation. Xuli Ma: conceptualization, methodology, funding acquisition.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval and consent to participation
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Weiming Zhang
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Z., An, X., Wang, P. et al. Removal of high concentration of chloride ions by electrocoagulation using aluminium electrode. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 50567–50581 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25792-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25792-1