Abstract
Wastewater application for irrigation is a traditional and economic tool in developing nations. Yet prolonged use of wastewater for agricultural activities contributes to the accumulation of metals in both soil and vegetables. This study investigated the accumulation and contamination of vegetables with heavy metals ensuing from the application of wastewater from the Agra Canal and the associated risks posed to human health. Three sites across the Agra canal were selected for sampling (CW-1, CW-2, and CW-3), where untreated wastewater is being used to irrigate vegetables (spinach, coriander, radish, and garlic crops), for which tube-well water (TW) from a village served as the control site. Water, soil, and vegetable samples were collected from all sites. The presence in them of various metals, such as As, Pb, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Ni, was detected at all four sites. The greatest content of Mn was found in CW-1’s water (7.91 mg/L), soil (633.77 mg/kg), and in spinach 368.12 (mg/kg) grown there. Significantly higher metal concentrations were observed in vegetables irrigated with wastewater than in tube-well-irrigated vegetables, with the metals ranked in accumulation as follows Mn > Zn > Ni > Cu > Cr > Pb > As. Our results also revealed that metal bioaccumulation varied enormously between foliar and non-foliar vegetables, as well as among the four sites. Daily metal intake (DMI) and health risk index (HRI) analyses suggested that children consuming contaminated vegetables are at higher risk than adults. The HRI for Mn, Ni, and Pb was above 1, which indicated significant health hazards to humans consuming the wastewater-irrigated vegetables. Moreover, the control site where tube-well water was used had an HRI below 1, signifying a negligible health risk for its consumption. Therefore, we may conclude that the extensive application of contaminated water for a longer duration would likely further increase metal accumulation in soil and vegetables that may be hazardous to living organisms.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Change history
30 December 2021
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18436-9
References
Ahmad JU, Goni MA (2010) Heavy metal contamination in water, soil, and vegetables of the industrial areas in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess 166(1):347–357
Ahmad K, Wajid K, Khan ZI, Ugulu I, Memoona H, Sana M, Nawaz K, Malik IS, Bashir H, Sher M (2019) Evaluation of potential toxic metals accumulation in wheat irrigated with wastewater. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 102(6):822–828
Ametepey ST, Cobbina SJ, Akpabey FJ, Duwiejuah AB, Abuntori ZN (2018) Health risk assessment and heavy metal contamination levels in vegetables from Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. Int J Food Contam 5(1):1–8
Bhardwaj R, Gupta A, Garg JK (2017) Evaluation of heavy metal contamination using environmetrics and indexing approach for River Yamuna, Delhi stretch, India. Water Sci 31(1):52–66
Bhatia A, Singh S, Kumar A (2015) Heavy metal contamination of soil, irrigation water and vegetables in peri-urban agricultural areas and markets of Delhi. Water Environ Res 87(11):2027–2034
Bi C, Zhou Y, Chen Z, Jia J, Bao X (2018) Heavy metals and lead isotopes in soils, road dust and leafy vegetables and health risks via vegetable consumption in the industrial areas of Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 619:1349–1357
Castro E, Mañas P, De Las Heras J (2013) Effects of wastewater irrigation in soil properties and horticultural crop (Lactuca sativa L.). J Plant Nutr 36(11):1659–1677
Cataldo DA, Wildung RE (1978) Soil and plant factors influencing the accumulation of heavy metals by plants. Environ Health Perspect 27:149–159
Chaoua S, Boussaa S, El Gharmali A, Boumezzough A (2019) Impact of irrigation with wastewater on accumulation of heavy metals in soil and crops in the region of Marrakech in Morocco. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 18(4):429–436
Chen Z, Muhammad I, Zhang Y, Hu W, Lu Q, Wang W, Huang B, Hao M (2020) Transfer of heavy metals in fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouse cultivation systems and their health risks in Northwest China. Sci Total Environ 142663
Chiroma TM, Ebewele RO, Hymore FK (2014) Comparative assessment of heavy metal levels in soil, vegetables and urban grey waste water used for irrigation in Yola and Kano. Int Refereed J Eng Sci 3(2):01–09
Federation, W. E., & Association, A. P. H (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington, DC, USA
Gebeyehu HR, Bayissa LD (2020) Levels of heavy metals in soil and vegetables and associated health risks in Mojo area, Ethiopia. PLoS One 15(1):e0227883
Gezahegn WW, Srinivasulu A, Aruna B, Banerjee S, Sudarshan M, Narayana PL, Rao ADP (2017) Study of heavy metals accumulation in leafy vegetables of Ethiopia.IOSR. J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol 11(5):57–68
Guadie A, Yesigat A, Gatew S, Worku A, Liu W, Ajibade FO, Wang A (2020) Evaluating the health risks of heavy metals from vegetables grown on soil irrigated with untreated and treated wastewater in Arba Minch, Ethiopia. Sci Total Environ 761:143302
Guangbin Z, Kaifu S, Xi M, Qiong H, Jing M, Hua G et al (2021) Nitrous oxide emissions, ammonia volatilization, and grain-heavy metal levels during the wheat season: Effect of partial organic substitution for chemical fertilizer. Agric Ecosyst Environ 311:107340
Huong NTL, Ohtsubo M, Li L, Higashi T, Kanayama M (2010) Heavy-metal contamination of soil and vegetables in wastewater-irrigated agricultural soil in a suburban area of Hanoi, Vietnam. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 41(4):390–407
Hussain A, Alamzeb S, Begum S (2013) Accumulation of heavy metals in edible parts of vegetables irrigated with waste water and their daily intake to adults and children, District Mardan, Pakistan. Food Chem 136(3–4):1515–1523
Kaur, R., Wani, S. P., Singh, A. K., &Lal, K. (2012) Wastewater production, treatment and use in India. In National Report presented at the 2nd regional workshop on Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture (pp. 1-13)
Kaushik A, Jain S, Dawra J, Sahu R, Kaushik CP (2001) Heavy metal pollution of river Yamuna in the industrially developing state of Haryana. Indian J Environ Health 43(4):164–168
Khalid S, Shahid M, Bibi I, Sarwar T, Shah AH, Niazi NK (2018) A review of environmental contamination and health risk assessment of wastewater use for crop irrigation with a focus on low and high-income countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(5):895
Khan K, Lu Y, Khan H, Ishtiaq M, Khan S, Waqas M et al (2013) Heavy metals in agricultural soils and crops and their health risks in Swat District, northern Pakistan. Food Chem Toxicol 58:449–458
Khillare PS, Jyethi DS, Sarkar S (2012) Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals via dietary intake of vegetables grown in the vicinity of thermal power plants. Food Chem Toxicol 50(5):1642–1652
Khozyem H, Hamdan A, Tantawy AA, Emam A, Elbadry E (2019) Distribution and origin of iron and manganese in groundwater: Case study, Balat-Teneida area, El-Dakhla Basin, Egypt. Arab J Geosci 12(16):1–16
Kumar V, Sharma A, Kaur P, Sidhu GPS, Bali AS, Bhardwaj R, Thukral AK, Cerda A (2019) Pollution assessment of heavy metals in soils of India and ecological risk assessment: a state-of-the-art. Chemosphere 216:449–462
Mandal R, Kaur S (2019) Impact of environmental pollution on trace elements in vegetables and associated potential risk to human health in industrial town Mandi-gobindgarh (India). Chemosphere 219:574–587
Martínez-Cortijo J, Ruiz-Canales A (2018) Effect of heavy metals on rice irrigated fields with waste water in high pH Mediterranean soils: the particular case of the Valencia area in Spain. Agric Water Manag 210:108–123
Meng W, Wang Z, Hu B, Wang Z, Li H, Goodman RC (2016) Heavy metals in soil and plants after long-term sewage irrigation at Tianjin China: a case study assessment. Agric Water Manag 171:153–161
Nayek S, Gupta S, Saha RN (2010) Metal accumulation and its effects in relation to biochemical response of vegetables irrigated with metal contaminated water and wastewater. J Hazard Mater 178(1–3):588–595
Noli F, Tsamos P (2016) Concentration of heavy metals and trace elements in soils, waters and vegetables and assessment of health risk in the vicinity of a lignite-fired power plant. Sci Total Environ 563:377–385
Onakpa MM, Njan AA, Kalu OC (2018) A review of heavy metal contamination of food crops in Nigeria. Ann Global Health 84(3):488–494
Rabie Ahmed Usman A, Ghallab A (2006) Heavy-metal fractionation and distribution in soil profiles short-term-irrigated with sewage wastewater. Chem Ecol 22(4):267–278
Rehman ZU, Sardar K, Shah MT, Brusseau ML, Khan SA, Mainhagu J (2018) Transfer of heavy metals from soils to vegetables and associated human health risks at selected sites in Pakistan. Pedosphere 28(4):666–679
Saha S, Hazra GC, Saha B, Mandal B (2015) Assessment of heavy metals contamination in different crops grown in long-term sewage-irrigated areas of Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Environ Monit Assess 187(1):1–12
Shahid M, Ferrand E, Schreck E, Dumat C (2013) Behavior and impact of zirconium in the soil–plant system: plant uptake and phytotoxicity. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 221:107–127
Shahid, M., Khalid, S., Murtaza, B., Anwar, H., Shah, A. H., Sardar, A, Niazi, N. K. (2020) A critical analysis of wastewater use in agriculture and associated health risks in Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 1-20
Sharma RK, Agrawal M, Marshall F (2007) Heavy metal contamination of soil and vegetables in suburban areas of Varanasi, India. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 66(2):258–266
Sharma A, Katnoria JK, Nagpal AK (2016) Heavy metals in vegetables: screening health risks involved in cultivation along wastewater drain and irrigating with wastewater. SpringerPlus 5(1):1–16
Sou MY, Mermoud A, Yacouba H, Boivin P (2013) Impacts of irrigation with industrial treated wastewater on soil properties. Geoderma 200:31–39
Tangahu BV, Sheikh Abdullah SR, Basri H, Idris M, Anuar N, Mukhlisin M (2011) A review on heavy metals (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake by plants through phytoremediation. Int J Chem Eng 2011:939161
Tasrina RC, Rowshon A, Mustafizur AMR, Rafiqul I, Ali MP (2015) Heavy metals contamination in vegetables and its growing soil. J Environ Anal Chem 2(142):2
Ungureanu N, Vlăduț V, Voicu G (2020) Water scarcity and wastewater reuse in crop irrigation. Sustainability 12(21):9055
ur Rehman K, Bukhari SM, Andleeb S, Mahmood A, Erinle KO, Naeem MM, Imran Q (2019) Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with groundwater and wastewater: The particular case of Sahiwal district in Pakistan. Agric Water Manag 226:105816
US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2015) Human health risk assessment: risk-based concentration table. http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/rbconcentration_table/Generic_Tables/index.htm
USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency).(1997).Exposure factors handbook. EPA/600/P-95/002Fa-c.
USEPA (2006) USEPA Region III Risk-based Concentration Table: Technical Background Information. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2011) USEPA Regional Screening Level (RSL) Summary Table: November 2011.
USEPA,(US Environmental Protection Agency) (2000) Handbook for non-cancer health effects evaluation. EPA Science and Policy Council, Washington, DC. Water and Wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC
WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017: Wastewater, The Untapped Resource. UNESCO, Paris
Yuan Y, Xiang M, Liu C, Theng BK (2019) Chronic impact of an accidental wastewater spill from a smelter, China: a study of health risk of heavy metal (loid) s via vegetable intake. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 182:109401
Zhou H, Yang W-T, Zhou X, Liu L, Gu J-F, Wang W-L, Zou J-L, Tian T, Peng P-Q, Liao B-H (2016) Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetable species planted in contaminated soils and the health risk assessment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13(3):289 https://www.usnews.com/news/top-news/articles/2020-02-26/new-delhi-is-worlds-most-polluted-capital-for-second-straight-year-study
Acknowledgments
AV thanks the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (09/263(1072)/2015-EMR-I) for financial assistance. We are also grateful to the Central Instrumentation Facility, School of Environmental Sciences, at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, for providing the ICP-OES facility enabling completion of this work.
Funding
AkankshaVerma received funding from the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Govt. of India for fellowship under JRF/SRF Scheme (09/263(1072)/2015-EMR-I).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AkankshaVerma (AV) performed the experimental studies, designing of experiment, data analysis, and manuscript writing. Usha Singh Gaharwar helped in data analysis. Eepsita Priyadarshini helped in drafting the manuscript. Paulraj Rajamani helped in experimental planning and manuscript finalization.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publish
Authors give their consent to publish the manuscript.
Competing interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Xianliang Yi
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Verma, ., Gaharwar, U.S., Priyadarshini, E. et al. Metal accumulation and health risk assessment in wastewater used for irrigation around the Agra Canal in Faridabad, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 8623–8637 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16088-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16088-3