Abstract
There have been some concerns that persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may be associated with the risk of prostate cancer. Meta-analyses have not yet investigated the association between human-biomonitoring data for POPs and prostate cancer risk. The purpose of this study was to assess the association between body concentration of individual compounds or mixtures of POPs and prostate cancer risk in the general population by performing a meta-analysis. A literature search was performed using PubMed, EMBASE, and KoreaMed from the period 1950 through 2014. The odds ratio (OR) and its 95 % confidence interval (CI) of prostate cancer associated with POPs were estimated using fixed-effects model or random-effects model where appropriate. Dose–response relationships were assessed by using the generalized least-squares method for trend estimation. A total of eight (six case–control, one cross-sectional, one nested case–control) studies including 1158 prostate cancer cases among 6932 subjects were selected for the meta-analysis. Total POPs of interest showed positive associations with statistical significance on prostate cancer (OR 1.31, 95 % CI 1.13, 1.57). In dose–response meta-analysis, 1 μg/g lipid of PCBs was found to be associated with a 49 % increased risk of prostate cancer (OR 1.49, 95 % CI 1.07, 2.06). One nanogram per gram (1000 μg/g) lipid of trans-nonachlor was found to be associated with approximately 2 % increased risk of prostate cancer (OR = 1.02/1 ng/g lipid of trans-nonachlor, 95 % CI 1.00, 1.03). The available evidence suggests that body concentrations of POPs are positively associated with prostate cancer risk, which implies valuable evidence for prostate cancer prevention.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-015-4315-z/MediaObjects/11356_2015_4315_Fig1_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-015-4315-z/MediaObjects/11356_2015_4315_Fig2_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-015-4315-z/MediaObjects/11356_2015_4315_Fig3_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-015-4315-z/MediaObjects/11356_2015_4315_Fig4_HTML.gif)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-015-4315-z/MediaObjects/11356_2015_4315_Fig5_HTML.gif)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alavanja MC, Samanic C, Dosemeci M, Lubin J, Tarone R, Lynch CF, Knott C, Thomas K, Hoppin JA, Barker J, Coble J, Sandler DP, Blair A (2003) Use of agricultural pesticides and prostate cancer risk in the agricultural health study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 157:800–814
American Cancer Society (2014) Cancer facts and figures 2014. Atlanta, GA
Aronson KJ, Wilson JW, Hamel M, Diarsvitri W, Fan W, Woolcott C, Heaton JP, Nickel JC, Macneily A, Morales A (2010) Plasma organochlorine levels and prostate cancer risk. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 20:434–445
Begg CB, Mazumdar M (1994) Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics 50:1088–1101
Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JPT, Rothstein HR (2009) Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester
Bosland MC (2000) The role of steroid hormones in prostate carcinogenesis. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 27:39–66
Charles LE, Loomis D, Shy CM, Newman B, Millikan R, Nylander-French LA, Couper D (2003) Electromagnetic fields, polychlorinated biphenyls, and prostate cancer mortality in electric utility workers. Am J Epidemiol 157:683–691
Daston GP, Cook JC, Kavlock RJ (2003) Uncertainties for endocrine disrupters: our view on progress. Toxicol Sci 74:245–252
Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C (1997) Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 315:629–634
Elise E, Arnaud G, Xavier C, Jean-Pierre T, Pascal B, Luc M (2014) Associations of plasma concentrations of dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls with prostate cancer: a case–control study in Guadeloupe (French West Indies). Environ Health Perspect Adv Publ. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408407
Engel LS, Laden F, Andersen A, Strickland PT, Blair A, Needham LL, Barr DB, Wolff MS, Helzlsouer K, Hunter DJ, Lan Q, Cantor KP, Comstock GW, Brock JW, Bush D, Hoover RN, Rothman N (2007) Polychlorinated biphenyl levels in peripheral blood and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: a report from three cohorts. Cancer Res 67:5545–5552
Gaines AR, Turner EL, Moorman PG, Freedland SJ, Keto CJ, McPhail ME, Grant DJ, Vidal AC, Hoyo C (2014) The association between race and prostate cancer risk on initial biopsy in an equal access, multiethnic cohort. Cancer Causes Control 25:1029–1035
Gann PH (2002) Risk factors for prostate cancer. Rev Urol 4:s3–s10
Greenland S, Longnecker MP (1992) Methods for trend estimation from summarized dose–response data, with applications to meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 135:1301–1309
Hardell L, Andersson SO, Carlberg M, Bohr L, van Bavel B, Lindström G, Björnfoth H, Ginman C (2006) Adipose tissue concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and the risk of prostate cancer. J Occup Environ Med 48:700–707
Hardell E, Kärrman A, van Bavel B, Bao J, Carlberg M, Hardell L (2014) Case–control study on perfluorinated alkyl acids (PFAAs) and the risk of prostate cancer. Envrion Int 63:35–39
Higgins JPT, Green S (2011) Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, version 5.1.0. Available: http://www.cochrane-handbook.org. Accessed 20 November 2011
Kimbrough RD (1995) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and human health: an update. Crit Rev Toxicol 25:133–163
Kumar V, Yadav CS, Singh S, Goel S, Ahmed RS, Gupta S, Grover RK, Banerjee BD (2010) CYP 1A1 polymorphsim and organochlorine pesticides levels in the etiology of prostate cancer. Chemosphere 81:464–468
L’Abbé KA, Detsky AS, O’Rourke K (1987) Meta-analysis in clinical research. Ann Intern Med 107:224–233
Lee DH, Lee IK, Porta M, Steffes M, Jacobs DR Jr (2007) Relationship between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among non-diabetic adults: results from the national health and nutrition examination survey 1999–2002. Diabetologia 50:1841–1851
Lee YM, Bae SG, Lee SH, Jacobs DR Jr, Lee DH (2013) Persistent organic pollutants and hyperuricemia in the U.S. general population. Atherosclerosis 230:1–5
Liu T, Xu QE, Zhang CH, Zhang P (2013) Occupational exposure to methylene chloride and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control 24:2037–2049
Lopez-Cervantes M, Torres-Sanchez L, Tobias A (2004) Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environ Health Perspect 112:207–214
Moysich KB, Shields PG, Freudenheim JL, Schisterman EF, Vena JE, Kostyniak P, Greizerstein H, Marshall JR, Graham S, Ambrosone CB (1999) Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P4501A1 polymorphism, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8:41–44
Pflieger-Bruss S, Hagemann S, Körner W, Hanf V, Köhn FM, Müller C, Schill WB (2006) Effects of single non-ortho, mono-ortho, and di-ortho chlorinated biphenyls on human sperm functions in vitro. Reprod Toxicol 21:280–284
Remzi M, Waldert M, Djavan B (2004) Prostate cancer in the aging male. J Mens Health Gend 1:47–59
Ritchie JM, Vial SL, Fuortes LJ, Guo HJ, Reedy VE, Smith EM (2003) Organochlorines and risk of prostate cancer. J Occup Environ Med 45:692–702
Ritchie JM, Vial SL, Fuortes LJ, Robertson LW, Guo H, Reedy VE, Smith EM (2005) Comparison of proposed frameworks for grouping polychlorinated biphenyl congener data applied to a case–control pilot study of prostate cancer. Environ Res 98:104–113
Sawada N, Iwasaki M, Inoue M, Itoh H, Sasazuki S, Yamaji T, Shimazu T, Tsugane S (2010) Plasma organochlorines and subsequent risk of prostate cancer in Japanese men: a nested case–control study. Environ Health Perspect 118:659–665
Sergeev AV, Carpenter DO (2011) Geospatial patterns of hospitalization rates for stroke with comorbid hypertension in relation to environmental sources of persistent organic pollutants: results from a 12-year population-based study. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 18(4):576–585
Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL (2003) Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis. Occup Environ Med 60:634–642
Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL (2004) Prostate cancer among pesticide applicators: a meta-analysis. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77:559–570
Van Maele-Fabry G, Libotte V, Willems J, Lison D (2006) Review and meta-analysis of risk estimates for prostate cancer in pesticide manufacturing workers. Cancer Causes Control 17:353–373
Wells GA, Shea B, O’Connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, Tugwell P (2011) The newcastle-ottawa scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. Dept of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa: Ottawa, Canada. http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp. Accessed 5 November 2011
Welshons WV, Thayer KA, Judy BM, Taylor JA, Curran EM, Vom Saal FS (2003) Large effects from small exposures. I. Mechanisms for endocrine-disrupting chemicals with estrogenic activity. Environ Health Perspect 111:994–1006
Wu H, Bertrand KA, Choi AL, Hu FB, Laden F, Grandjean P, Sun Q (2013) Persistent organic pollutants and type 2 diabetes: a prospective analysis in the nurses’ health study and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect 121:153–161
Xu X, Dailey AB, Talbott EO, Ilacqua VA, Kearney G, Asal NR (2010) Associations of serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides with breast cancer and prostate cancer in U.S. adults. Environ Health Perspect 118:60–66
Zendehdel R, Tayefeh-Rahimian R, Kabir A (2014) Chronic exposure to chlorophenol related compounds in the pesticide production workplace and lung cancer: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 15:5149–5153
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a grant (13162KFDA891) from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety in 2013 and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (2011–0029348).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Jung-eun Lim and Su Hyun Park contributed equally to this work.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lim, Je., Park, S.H., Jee, S.H. et al. Body concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22, 11275–11284 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4315-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4315-z