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A Cost-Effective Methodology for Spatial Concentration Distributions of Urban Air Pollutants

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Abstract

A methodology to determine economically the spatial concentration distribution of the air pollutants of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and traffic rates (TR) is described. It involves the immediate transfer of samples from field to analysers for measurement and a subsequent statistical treatment. The proposed methodology has been applied in Patras using 5 and 50-l Teflon air sample bags, sampling at least 12 to 36-l actual volumes within a 20-min time interval. Totally, 221 pairs of 5-l and 112 single 50-l samples were randomly picked in morning rush hours of working days from 64 locations of a 40.0-km2 area during a winter period, when peaks of primary air pollutants usually occur due to high traffic rates and systematic inversions. Measurements were used to statistically calculate spatial average levels approximating 1-h mean concentrations with acceptable mean probable errors less than 25 % for indicative random sampling. The 1-h levels were strongly correlated to the corresponding traffic rates. Iso-concentration diagrams indicated possible zones susceptible to high pollution levels and helped to check the location appropriateness of the existing monitoring stations for (a) fixed urban-background measurements at the Vas. Georgiou A’ Sq., which was ideal, and (b) fixed traffic-oriented measurements, which should be relocated to the Ipsilon Alonion Sq. In addition, data helped to determine other points where indicative measurements should be performed. Data could be very useful for the Patras air quality assessment in conjunction with model predictions and/or objective estimation methods.

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Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank the two anonymous reviewers for the useful suggestions that improved the revised version of the paper.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Patras, 265 04, Patras, Greece

    Panayotis C. Yannopoulos

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  1. Panayotis C. Yannopoulos
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Correspondence to Panayotis C. Yannopoulos.

Appendix A

Appendix A

The EC Council Directive 80/779/EEC (EC 1980) in Article 6, being in force during the period of the 1st Patras case study and partially kept in force up to 19 July 2001, stated that SO2 sampling stations might be located at sites where pollution is thought to be greatest and where the measured concentrations are representative of local conditions. The EC Council Directive 85/203/EEC (EC 1985) in Annex III kept in force up to 1 January 2010 gives among other specifications similar suggestions for the selection of NO2 measurement points. The EC Council Directive 96/62/EC (EC 1996) includes a common strategy on ambient air quality assessment and management, as well as measures and requirements to be adopted by Member States, while the next EC Council Directive 1999/30/EC (EC 1999), partially replacing the EC (1985), established limit values and alert thresholds for concentrations of SO2, NO2 and NOx, particulate matter and lead in ambient air, specified common methods and criteria to assess these concentrations and to obtain adequate information and maintain or improve ambient–air quality. This directive also provides lower and upper thresholds for determining the appropriate zones and the minimum number of sampling points for fixed measurement of the above pollutant concentrations. Interest is focused on zones where air pollution levels are higher than the lower thresholds or exceeding upper thresholds in contrast to zones where the levels are lower than the lower thresholds. The above directive forces member states, which do not have representative measurements of the levels of pollutants for all zones, to undertake series of representative measurements, surveys or assessments in order to have the data available in time for implementation of the proposed legislation. The most recent EC Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (EC 2008), which is in the same reasoning and orientation as the previous directive, has taken into account the relevant World Health Organization standards, guidelines and programs in order to protect human health and the environment as a whole. It tries to establish a common approach to the assessment of ambient air quality on the basis of common assessment criteria, as the size of populations and ecosystems exposed to air pollution, as well as important term definitions. This makes necessary to classify the territory of each member state into zones or agglomerations reflecting the population density. The term “zone” shall mean part of the territory of a member state, as delimited by that member state for the purposes of air quality assessment and management; “agglomeration” shall mean a zone that is a conurbation with a population in excess of 250,000 inhabitants or, where the population is 250,000 inhabitants or less, with a given population density per square kilometer to be established by the member states; “limit value” (LV) shall mean a level fixed on the basis of scientific knowledge, with the aim of avoiding, preventing or reducing harmful effects on human health and/or the environment as a whole, to be attained within a given period and not to be exceeded once attained; “margin of tolerance” (MT) shall mean the percentage of the LV by which that value may be exceeded subject to the conditions laid down in the aforementioned directive; “target value” shall mean a level fixed with the aim of avoiding, preventing or reducing harmful effects on human health and/or the environment as a whole, to be attained where possible over a given period; “alert threshold” (AT) shall mean a level beyond which there is a risk to human health from brief exposure for the population as a whole and at which immediate steps are to be taken by the member states; “upper assessment threshold” (UAT) shall mean a level below which a combination of fixed measurements and modelling techniques and/or indicative measurements may be used to assess ambient air quality; “lower assessment threshold” (LAT) shall mean a level below which modelling or objective-estimation techniques alone may be used to assess ambient air quality. Exceedances of upper and lower assessment thresholds shall be determined on the basis of concentrations during the previous 5 years where sufficient data are available. An assessment threshold shall be deemed to have been exceeded if it has been exceeded during at least three separate years out of those previous 5 years. Where fewer than 5 years’ data are available, member states may combine measurement campaigns of short duration during the period of the year and at locations likely to be typical of the highest pollution levels with results obtained from information from emission inventories and modelling to determine exceedances of the UAT and LAT.

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Yannopoulos, P.C. A Cost-Effective Methodology for Spatial Concentration Distributions of Urban Air Pollutants. Water Air Soil Pollut 225, 1989 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-1989-7

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