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Evaluating Municipal Water Management Options with the Incorporation of Water Quality and Energy Consumption

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Abstract

Rapidly growing population and associated socio-economic development are placing increasing stress on water resources and posing challenges for water management. This study develops a system dynamics model for municipal water management in Hillsborough County by incorporating water quality and energy consumption associated with water supply in decision-making. The result shows that the percentage of surface water withdrawal will decrease by 11.7~23.3 % with considering water quality, and this results in the simulated surface water level increases by 1.32~1.39 %. With considering both water quality and energy consumption, the surface water level increases by 1.10~1.30 %. There is a slight decrease in groundwater storage (0.02~0.08 %) compared with the reference behavior. The result also finds that water conservation education is the most effective option among the seven management options reducing the freshwater withdrawals. It reduces the freshwater withdrawals by 14.9 %, followed by rebates on indoor water appliances. Rebates on outdoor water appliances and irrigation restriction are effective to decrease the outdoor water demand. The model is sensitive to precipitation and a more accurate representation of precipitation should be employed.

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Acknowledgments

This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Numbers CBET 0725636. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave, ENB118, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA

    Yilin Zhuang & Qiong Zhang

Authors
  1. Yilin Zhuang
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  2. Qiong Zhang
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Qiong Zhang.

Appendices

Appendix 1. Key Variable Quantification

$$ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}=\mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{Per}\ \mathrm{Capita}\times \mathrm{Population} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Indoor}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Demand}\mathrm{per}\mathrm{Capita}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\frac{\mathrm{Daily}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Capita}}{\mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Use}\ \mathrm{Efficiency}}\times 30\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \left(1-\mathrm{Reduction}\ \mathrm{due}\ \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Price}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Daily}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Capita}=15 $$

Unit: Gallon/Person-Day

$$ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficiency} = \frac{\mathrm{Household}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}}{\mathrm{Maximum}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\times 0.95} $$

Unit: Fraction

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{MaximumIndoorWaterEfficientAppliances}\hfill \\ {}=\mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household} \times \frac{\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Population}}{\mathrm{People}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}}\hfill \\ {}+\mathrm{DELAY}1\left(\frac{\mathrm{Population}\ \hbox{--}\ \mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Population}}{\mathrm{People}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}}\right.\hfill \\ {}\left.\times \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household},\ 36\right)\times 0.2\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{AgedIndoorWaterAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{Household}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Aging}\ \mathrm{Rate}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number/Month

$$ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Aging}\ \mathrm{Rate}=2\mathrm{E}-5 $$

Unit: Fraction/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{NewIndoorWaterEfficienctAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\mathrm{DEALY}1\mathrm{I}\left(\frac{\mathrm{Expences}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}}{\mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Every}\ \mathrm{Household}\ \mathrm{Indoor}},24,0\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Number/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Household}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em ={\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{New}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\right.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em \left.-\mathrm{Aged}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em +\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number

$$ \mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}=452858 $$

Unit: Number

$$ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}=4 $$

Unit: Number/Month

$$ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}=150 $$

Unit: Dollar/Number

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{ExpensesonIndoorWaterAppliancesRebates}\hfill \\ {}=\left\{\begin{array}{l} \min \left(\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates},\hfill \\ {}\mathrm{Planned}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\right),1980\le \mathrm{year}\le 2010\hfill \\ {}\begin{array}{l}\kern2em \min \left(\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates},\hfill \\ {}\mathrm{Planned}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\right),\mathrm{year}>2010\hfill \\ {}\kern3em +\mathrm{Additional}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}\right.\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Dollar/Month

$$ \mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Indoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}=500000/12 $$

Unit: Dollar/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{New}\;\mathrm{Indoor}\;\mathrm{Water}\;\mathrm{Efficient}\;\mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern3.24em =\mathrm{DELAY}1\mathrm{I}\left(\frac{\mathrm{Expenses}\;\mathrm{on}\;\mathrm{Indoor}\;\mathrm{Water}\;\mathrm{Appliances}\;\mathrm{Rebates}}{\mathrm{Budget}\;\mathrm{on}\;\mathrm{Every}\;\mathrm{Household}\;\mathrm{Indoor}},24,0\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Number/Month

$$ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}=\mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Capita}\times \mathrm{Population} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Capita}\hfill \\ {}=\frac{\mathrm{Net}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Requirement}\ \mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\ \mathrm{Lawn}\times \mathrm{Lawn}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Person}\times \mathrm{Turf}\ \mathrm{Coverage}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Unit}}{\mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficiency}}\hfill \\ {}\times \left(1\hbox{-} \mathrm{Reduction}\ \mathrm{due}\ \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Price}\right)\times \left(1\hbox{-} \mathrm{Reduction}\ \mathrm{due}\ \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\ \mathrm{Restrictions}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Person-Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Reduction}\ \mathrm{due}\ \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\ \mathrm{Irrigation}\ \mathrm{Restriction}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\left\{\begin{array}{c}\hfill 0,\mathrm{year}<2002\hfill \\ {}\hfill \mathrm{Irrigation}\ \mathrm{Restriction}\ \mathrm{Lookup}\ \mathrm{Fucntion},\mathrm{year}\ge 2002\hfill \end{array}\right.\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Fraction/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Irrigation}\ \mathrm{Restriction}\ \mathrm{Lookup}\ \mathrm{Function}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\mathrm{WITH}\ \mathrm{LOOKUP}\left(\mathrm{Maximum}\ \mathrm{Weekly}\ \mathrm{Irrigation}\ \mathrm{Times},\left(\left[\left(0,0\right.\right.\right.\right)\hfill \\ {}\kern5em \left.-\left.1000,40\right)\right],\left(0,1\right),\left(1,0.5\right),\left(2,0.3\right),\left(3,0\right)\left.\left.\left(10,0\right)\right)\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Fraction

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{WaterRequirment}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{Lawn}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\left\{\begin{array}{c}\hfill 0,\mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\ \mathrm{Precipiation}\ge \mathrm{Crop}\ \mathrm{E}\mathrm{T}\hfill \\ {}\hfill \mathrm{Crop}\ \mathrm{E}\mathrm{T}\hbox{-} \mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\ \mathrm{Precipiation},\mathrm{N}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\ \mathrm{Precipiation}<\mathrm{Crop}\ \mathrm{E}\mathrm{T}\hfill \end{array}\right.\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Inch/Crop

$$ \mathrm{Turf}\ \mathrm{E}\mathrm{T}\ \mathrm{Coefficeint}=1.05 $$

Unit: Dimensionless

$$ \mathrm{Effective}\ \mathrm{Precipitation}=\mathrm{Precipitation}\ \mathrm{Rate}\times \mathrm{Effective}\ \mathrm{Precipitation}\ \mathrm{Ratio} $$

Unit: Inch/Month

$$ \mathrm{Effective}\ \mathrm{Precipitation}\ \mathrm{Ratio}=0.7 $$

Unit: Fraction

$$ \begin{array}{l}\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{HouseholdOutdoorWaterEfficientAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em ={\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{New}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\right)}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \left.-\mathrm{Aged}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em +\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number

$$ \mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}=32347 $$

Unit: Number

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{AgedOutdoorWaterAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{Household}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Efficient}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Aging}\ \mathrm{Rate}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number/Month

$$ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Aging}\ \mathrm{Rate}=1\mathrm{E}\hbox{-} 5 $$

Unit: Fraction/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{NewOutdoorWaterEfficientAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{DELAY}1\mathrm{I}\left(\frac{\mathrm{Expenses}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}}{\mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}},18,0\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Number/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{ExpensesonOutdoorWaterAppliancesRebates}\hfill \\ {}=\left\{\begin{array}{l} \min \left(\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates},\hfill \\ {}\mathrm{Planned}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\right),1980\le \mathrm{year}\le 2010\hfill \\ {}\kern2em \min \left(\begin{array}{c}\hfill \mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates},\hfill \\ {}\hfill \mathrm{Planned}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\right),\mathrm{year}>2010\hfill \\ {}\kern3em +\mathrm{Additional}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}\hfill \end{array}\right.\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Dollar/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{NewOutdoorWaterEfficientAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{DELAY}1\mathrm{I}\left(\frac{\mathrm{Expenses}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}}{\mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}},18,0\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number/Month

$$ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Householde}=200 $$

Unit: Dollar/Number

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{MaximumOutdoorWaterEfficientAppliances}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}\times \frac{\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Population}}{\mathrm{People}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em +\mathrm{DELAY}1\mathrm{I}\left(\frac{\mathrm{Population}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Population}}{\mathrm{People}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household}}\right.\hfill \\ {}\kern5em \left.\times \kern0.5em \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Household},36\right)\times 0.3\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Number

$$ \mathrm{Potential}\ \mathrm{Budget}\ \mathrm{on}\ \mathrm{Outdoor}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Appliances}\ \mathrm{Rebates}=500000/12 $$

Unit: Dollar/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Storage}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em ={\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{Precipitation}+\mathrm{Runoff}+\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Discharge}\right.}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em +\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Inflow}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Evaporation}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em -\mathrm{Infiltration}\ \mathrm{from}\ \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Outflow}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \left.-\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Withdrawal}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}+\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Level}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Area}\times 2.09\mathrm{e}08\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Availability}\hfill \\ {}={\displaystyle \left\{\left(\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Level} - \mathrm{Minimum}\ \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Level}\right)\times \frac{\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Area}\times 2.09\mathrm{e}08}{\begin{array}{r}\hfill \mathrm{Time}\ \mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\ \mathrm{Supply}\\ {}\hfill 0,\mathrm{Otherwise}\end{array}},\mathrm{SurfaceWaterLevel}>\mathrm{MinimumSurfaceWaterLevel}\right)}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Surface}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Withdrawal}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em = \min \left(\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Availability},\ \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{GroundwaterStorage}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em ={\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{Groundwater}\ \mathrm{Inflow}+\mathrm{Groundwater}\ \mathrm{Recharge}+\mathrm{Percolation}\right.}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em +\mathrm{Seawater}\ \mathrm{Intrusion}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Groundwater}\ \mathrm{Outflow}\hfill \\ {}\left.\kern6em -\mathrm{Groundwater}\ \mathrm{Withdrawal}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}+\mathrm{Aquifer}\ \mathrm{Area}\times 1500\times 2.09\mathrm{e}08\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{GroundWaterAvailability}\hfill \\ {}={\displaystyle \left\{\left(\mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{GroundwaterTable} - \mathrm{Groundwater}\ \mathrm{Table}\ \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\ \mathrm{Surface}\right)\times \frac{\mathrm{Aquifer}\ \mathrm{Area}\times 2.09\mathrm{e}08}{\begin{array}{r}\hfill \mathrm{Time}\ \mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\ \mathrm{Supply}\\ {}\hfill 0,\mathrm{Otherwise}\end{array}},\mathrm{MinimumGroundwaterTable}>\mathrm{GroundwaterTable}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{Surface}\right)}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Ground}\mathrm{waterWithdrawal}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em = \min \left(\mathrm{Ground}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Availability},\ \mathrm{Ground}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Depth}\ \mathrm{of}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Layer}=80 $$

Unit: Inch

$$ \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity}=\mathrm{Depth}\ \mathrm{of}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Layer}\times \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Caopacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}\times \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Area} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}=0.3 $$

Unit: Fraction

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{InfiltrationfromPrecicpitation}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em = \min \left(\mathrm{Difference}\ \mathrm{between}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Storage}\ \mathrm{and}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\right.\hfill \\ {}\kern6em /\left.1,\ \mathrm{Precipitation}\ \mathrm{Reaching}\ \mathrm{Soil}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Difference}\ \mathrm{between}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Storage}\ \mathrm{and}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Saturation}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Storage}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{PrecipitationReachingSoil}\hfill \\ {}\kern5em =\mathrm{Precipitation}\ \mathrm{Rate}\times \left(1\hbox{-} \mathrm{Interception}\ \mathrm{Ratio}\right)\times \mathrm{Permeable}\ \mathrm{Land}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity}=\mathrm{Depth}\ \mathrm{of}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Layer}\times \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}\times \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Area} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}=0.1 $$

Unit: Fraction

$$ \mathrm{Percolation}= \max \left(\mathrm{Percolation}\ \mathrm{Surplus},0\right) $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Percolation}\ \mathrm{Surplus}=\mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Storage}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Field}\ \mathrm{Capacity} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Soil}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Storage}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em {\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{Infiltration}\ \mathrm{from}\ \mathrm{Precipitation}\right.}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em +\mathrm{Infiltration}\ \mathrm{from}\ \mathrm{Surface}\ \mathrm{Water}\hbox{-} \mathrm{Percolation}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \left.-\mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Evapotranspiration}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}+\mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Storage}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon

$$ \mathrm{Initial}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Storage}=0.5\times \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Saturation}\ \mathrm{Capacity} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Seawater}\mathrm{Intrusion}=\Big\{\begin{array}{r}\hfill \mathrm{DELAY3}\left(\mathrm{SeawaterLevel}-\mathrm{LevelTable}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{Surface}\right)\times \mathrm{IntrusionArea,SeawaterLevel}>\mathrm{GrounwaterTable}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{Surface}\\ {}0,\mathrm{Otherwise}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Soil}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Saturation}\mathrm{Capacity}\hfill \\ {}\begin{array}{l}\kern6em =\mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Saturation}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}\times \mathrm{Depth}\ \mathrm{of}\ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Layer}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \mathrm{SoilArea}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Soil}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Saturation}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\ \mathrm{Fraction}=0.5 $$

Unit: Inch/Inch

$$ \begin{array}{l}\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Reclaimed}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Expansion}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{DELAY}3\left(\mathrm{Expansion}\ \mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Expansion}\right.\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \left./\mathrm{Unit}\ \mathrm{Cost}\ \mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Expansion},\ 24\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Capacity}={\displaystyle \int \left(\mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Expansion}\right)\mathrm{d}\mathrm{t}} $$

Unit: Gallon

$$ \begin{array}{l}\begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Reclaimed}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Expansion}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{DELAY}3\left(\mathrm{Expansion}\ \mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Expansion}\right.\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \left./\mathrm{Unit}\ \mathrm{Cost}\ \mathrm{f}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Expansion},\ 24\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{Reclaimed}\mathrm{Water}\mathrm{Supply}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em = \min \left(\mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand},\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Capacity}\right)\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

$$ \begin{array}{l}\mathrm{PotentialReclaimedWaterDemand}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em =\mathrm{People}\ \mathrm{with}\ \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Acceptance}\hfill \\ {}\kern6em \times \mathrm{Reclaimed}\ \mathrm{Water}\ \mathrm{Demand}\ \mathrm{per}\ \mathrm{Capita}\hfill \end{array} $$

Unit: Gallon/Month

Major Sources:

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2010a. Alternative Water Supplies: 2010 Annual Report.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2005. Annual Agency Reuse Report, 2004

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2010b. Economic Feasibility of Reclaimed Water Use by Non-Utility Water Use Permittees and Applicants—Final Report.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2003. Estimated Water Use Report, 2001

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2004. Estimated Water Use Report Addendum, 2001

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2004. Estimated Water Use Report Summary, 1998–2002

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2004. Estimated Water Use Report, 2002

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2006. Estimated Water Use Report, 2003–2004.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2007. Estimated Water Use Report, 2005.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2008. Estimated Water Use Report, 2006.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2009. Estimated Water Use Report, 2007.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2010. Estimated Water Use Report, 2008.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2011. Estimated Water Use Report, 2009.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2012. Estimated Water Use Report, 2010.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2013. Estimated Water Use Report, 2011.

Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD). 2014. Estimated Water Use Report, 2012.

Yingling, J.W., Carter, D., Hopkins, J., et al., 1999. Estimated 1997 Water and Wastewater Charges in the Southwest Florida Water Management District. Southwest Florida Water Management District.

John B. W. 2005. Evaluation of Florida Single Family Residential Water Rates, Southwest Florida Water Management District.

Appendix 2

Table 5 Key water quality parameters and standards
Full size table

Appendix 3

Table 6 Historical precipitation and reference evapotranspiration
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Appendix 4

Fig. 6
figure 6

Extreme condition tests for model validation: a extreme condition for population, b extreme condition for precipitation

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Appendix 5

Fig. 7
figure 7

Sensitivity analysis for model validation: a sensitivity of outdoor water demand to precipitation, b sensitivity of surface water level to precipitation

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Appendix 6

Fig. 8
figure 8

Model behavior pattern test: a comparison of historic municipal water withdrawals and model simulation from 1980 to 2008, b comparison of surface water level and model simulation from 1980 to 2005

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Zhuang, Y., Zhang, Q. Evaluating Municipal Water Management Options with the Incorporation of Water Quality and Energy Consumption. Water Resour Manage 29, 35–61 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-014-0825-6

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