Abstract
Content analyses of popular media have consistently documented the narrow and stereotypical ways in which women and men are frequently depicted. Despite growing evidence that these media images impact viewers’ attitudes towards women and gender relations, less is known about how specifically media impact men’s beliefs about masculinity. Thus, the purpose of our paper was to explore the association between media use and beliefs about manhood among a sample of undergraduate men from a U.S. Midwestern university. In Study 1 (N = 488), we examine the relation between young men’s media consumption and their beliefs about the male role using the Adolescent Masculinity in Relationships Scale (AMIRS; Chu et al. 2005). As hypothesized, men’s media use was associated with more traditional beliefs about the male role, with reality TV and movie viewing emerging as significant predictors. Study 2 (N = 449) addresses the contribution of male-oriented media (e.g., sports programming, video games, men’s magazines) to men’s personal adherence to masculinity ideology as measured by the Conformity to Masculine Norm Inventory-46 (Parent and Moradi 2009). Here, sports TV viewing, reality TV viewing, and reading men’s magazines were predictive of stronger adherence to masculinity ideology. These findings suggest that media may contribute not only to beliefs about women and gender relations, but also to young men’s beliefs about manhood and personal enactment of masculinity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772–790. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772.
Appel, M. (2008). Fictional narratives cultivate just‐world beliefs. Journal of Communication, 58, 62–83. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00374.x.
Aubrey, J., & Harrison, K. (2004). The gender-role content of children’s favorite television programs and its links to their gender-related perceptions. Media Psychology, 6, 111–146. doi:10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_1.
Aubrey, J. S., & Taylor, L. D. (2009). The role of lad magazines in priming men’s chronic and temporary appearance-related schemata: An investigation of longitudinal and experimental findings. Human Communication Research, 35, 28–58. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.01337.x.
Beasley, B., & Collins-Standley, T. (2002). Shirts vs. skins: Clothing as an indicator of gender role stereotyping in video games. Mass Communication & Society, 5, 279–293. doi:10.1207/S15327825MCS0503_3.
Becker, L. B., & Schönbach, K. (2013). Audience responses to media diversification: Coping with plenty. New York: Routledge.
Behm-Morawitz, E., & Mastro, D. (2009). The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters on gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles, 61, 808–823. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8.
Ben-Zeev, A., Scharnetzki, L., Chan, L. K., & Dennehy, T. C. (2012). Hypermasculinity in the media: When men “walk into the fog” to avoid affective communication. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1, 53–61. doi:10.1037/a0027099.
Borzekowski, D. L., Robinson, T. N., & Killen, J. D. (2000). Does the camera add 10 pounds? Media use, perceived importance of appearance, and weight concerns among teenage girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 36–41. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00044-0.
Chu, J. Y., Porche, M. V., & Tolman, D. L. (2005). The Adolescent Masculinity Ideology in Relationships Scale development and validation of a new measure for boys. Men and Masculinities, 8, 93–115. doi:10.1177/1097184X03257453.
Cobb, M. D., & Boettcher, W. A. (2007). Ambivalent sexism and misogynistic rap music: Does exposure to Eminem increase sexism? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 3025–3042. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00292.x.
Collins, R. (2011). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? Sex Roles, 64, 290–298. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender and Society, 19, 829–859. doi:10.1177/0891243205278639.
Coyne, S. M., Callister, M., & Robinson, T. (2010). Yes, another teen movie: Three decades of physical violence in films aimed at adolescents. Journal of Children and Media, 4, 387–401. doi:10.1080/17482798.2010.510006.
Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world: A decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 125–137. doi:10.1177/2167696813479782.
Dens, N., de Pelsmacker, P., & Janssens, W. (2009). Effects of scarcely dressed models in advertising on body esteem for Belgian men and women. Sex Roles, 60, 366–378. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9541-0.
Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425–442. doi:10.1023/A:1018709905920.
Dill, K. E., & Thill, K. P. (2007). Video game characters and the socialization of gender roles: Young people’s perceptions mirror sexist media depictions. Sex Roles, 57, 851–864. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1.
DuRant, R. H., Rich, M., Emans, S. J., Rome, E. S., Allred, E., & Woods, E. R. (1997). Violence and weapon carrying in music videos: A content analysis. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151, 443–448. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170420013002.
Evans, L., & Davies, K. (2000). No sissy boys here: A content analysis of the representation of masculinity in elementary school reading textbooks. Sex Roles, 42, 255–270. doi:10.1023/A:1007043323906.
Ezzell, M. B. (2009). Pornography, lad mags, video games, and boys: Reviving the canary in the cultural coal mine. In S. Olfman (Ed.), The sexualization of childhood (pp. 7–32). Westport: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
Farvid, P., & Braun, V. (2006). “Most of us guys are raring to go anytime, anyplace, anywhere”: Male and female sexuality in Cleo and Cosmo. Sex Roles, 55, 295–310. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9084-1.
Ferris, A. L., Smith, S., Greenberg, B. S., & Smith, S. L. (2007). The content of reality dating shows and viewer perceptions of dating. Journal of Communication, 57, 490–510. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00354.x.
Garitaonandia, C., Juaristi, P., & Oleaga, J. A. (2001). Media genres and content preferences. In S. Livingstone & M. Bovil (Eds.), Children and their changing media environment: A European comparative study (pp. 141–157). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Gerbner, G. (1970). Cultural indicators: The case of violence in television drama. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 388, 69–81. doi:10.1177/000271627038800108.
Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation analysis: An overview. Mass Communication & Society, 1, 175–194. doi:10.1080/15205436.1998.9677855.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17–40). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Glascock, J. (2001). Gender roles on prime-time network television: Demographics and behaviors. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45, 656–669. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4504_7.
Good, G. E., Porter, M. J., & Dillon, M. G. (2002). When men divulge: Portrayals of men’s self-disclosure in prime time situation comedies. Sex Roles, 46, 419–427. doi:10.1023/A:1020465614624.
Greenwood, D. N., & Lippman, J. R. (2010). Gender and media: Content, uses, and impact. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 643–669). New York: Springer.
Hall, A. (2009). Perceptions of media realism and reality TV. In R. L. Nabi & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 423–438). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Johnson, P., McCreary, D., & Mills, J. (2007). Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men’s psychological well-being. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 95–102. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.2.95.
Kim, J. L., Lynn Sorsoli, C., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 145–157. doi:10.1080/00224490701263660.
Krassas, N. R., Blauwkamp, J. M., & Wesselink, P. (2003). “Master your Johnson”: Sexual rhetoric in Maxim and Stuff magazines. Sexuality and Culture, 7, 98–119. doi:10.1007/s12119-003-1005-7.
Kulis, S., Marsiglia, F. F., Lingard, E. C., Nieri, T., & Nagoshi, J. (2008). Gender identity and substance use among students in two high schools in Monterrey, Mexico. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95, 258–268. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.019.
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., & Ranking, T. J. (2013). Male Role Norms Inventory–Short Form (MRNI-SF): Development, confirmatory factor analytic investigation of structure, and measurement invariance across gender. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 228–238. doi:10.1037/a0031545.
Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. L. (2004). Sex differences in video game play: A communication-based explanation. Communication Research, 31, 499–523. doi:10.1177/0093650204267930.
MacKay, N. J., & Covell, K. (1997). The impact of women in advertisements on attitudes toward women. Sex Roles, 36, 573–583. doi:10.1023/A:1025613923786.
Manganello, J. A., & Chauhan, A. G. (2011). Car riding behavior in television programs watched by adolescents in the US. Journal of Children and Media, 5, 194–203. doi:10.1080/17482798.2011.558276.
Martin, K. A., & Kazyak, E. (2009). Hetero-romantic love and heterosexiness in children’s G-rated films. Gender and Society, 23, 315–336. doi:10.1177/0891243209335635.
Messner, M. A., Dunbar, M., & Hunt, D. (2000). The televised sports manhood formula. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 24, 380–394. doi:10.1177/0193723500244006.
Monk, D., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). Three dimensions of the male gender role as correlates of alcohol and cannabis involvement in young Australian men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4, 57–69. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.57.
Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54, 337–355. doi:10.1080/08838151003735018.
Motion Picture Association of America∛ (2014). Theatrical market statistics. Retrieved from http://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MPAA-Theatrical-Market-Statistics-2014.pdf
Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory and development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 175–189. doi:10.1037/a0015481.
Pleck, J. H., Sonenstein, F. L., & Ku, L. C. (1993). Masculinity ideology and its correlates. In S. Oskamp & M. Costanzo (Eds.), Gender issues in social psychology (pp. 85–110). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Ricciardelli, R., Clow, K., & White, P. (2010). Investigating hegemonic masculinity: Portrayals of masculinity in men’s lifestyle magazines. Sex Roles, 63, 64–78. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9764-8.
Rice, L. (2015). Most watched cable programs. Retrieved from http:// www.ew.com/article/2012/12/12/this-years-most-watched-cable-shows
Roberts, D. F., Henriksen, L., & Christenson, P. G. (1999). Substance use in popular movies and music. Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy.
Scharrer, E. (2004). Virtual violence: Gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society, 7, 393–412. doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0704_2.
Scharrer, E. (2005). Hypermasculinity, aggression, and television violence: An experiment. Media Psychology, 7, 353–376. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0704_3.
Seabrook, R., Ward, L. M., & Reed, L., Manago, A., Giaccardi, S., & Lippman, J. (2016). Our scripted sexuality: The development and validation of a measure of the heterosexual script and its relation to television consumption. Emerging Adulthood. doi:10.1177/2167696815623686.
Shanahan, J., & Morgan, M. (1999). Television and its viewers: Cultivation theory and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smiler, A. P., & Epstein, M. (2010). Measuring gender: Options and issues. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 133–157). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1.
Smith, S. L., & Cook, C. A. (2008). Gender stereotypes: An analysis of popular films and TV. Los Angeles: Geena Davis Institute for Gender and Media.
Stankiewicz, J. M., & Rosselli, F. (2008). Women as sex objects and victims in print advertisements. Sex Roles, 57, 579–589. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9359-1.
Stermer, S. P., & Burkley, M. (2012). SeX-Box: Exposure to sexist video games predicts benevolent sexism. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4, 47–55. doi:10.1037/a0028397.
Stern, S. R. (2005). Self-absorbed, dangerous, and disengaged: What popular films tell us about teenagers. Mass Communication & Society, 8, 23–38. doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0801_3.
Stibbe, A. (2004). Health and the social construction of masculinity in Men’s Health magazine. Men and Masculinities, 7, 31–51. doi:10.1177/1097184X03257441.
Taylor, L. D. (2005). All for him: Articles about sex in American lad magazines. Sex Roles, 52, 153–163. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-1291-7.
Towbin, M., Haddock, S., Zimmerman, T., Lund, L., & Tanner, L. (2003). Images of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation in Disney feature-length animated films. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 15(4), 19–44. doi:10.1300/J086v15n04_02.
Vigorito, A. J., & Cury, T. J. (1998). Marketing masculinity: Gender identity and popular magazines. Sex Roles, 39, 135–152. doi:10.1023/A:1018838102112.
Vokey, M., Tefft, B., & Tysiaczny, C. (2013). An analysis of hyper-masculinity in magazine advertisements. Sex Roles, 68, 562–576. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0268-1.
Ward, L. M. (1995). Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in the prime-time television programs children and adolescents view most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 595–615. doi:10.1007/BF01537058.
Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 1–15. doi:10.1023/A:1014068031532.
Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2006). Breasts are for men: Media, masculinity ideologies, and men’s beliefs about women’s bodies. Sex Roles, 55, 703–714. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9125-9.
Ward, L. M., Day, K., & Thomas, K. (2010). Confronting the assumptions: Exploring the nature and predictors of Black adolescents’ media use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54, 69–86. doi:10.1080/08838150903550410.
Ward, L. M., Epstein, M., Caruthers, A., & Merriwether, A. (2011). Men’s media use, sexual cognitions, and sexual risk behavior: Testing a mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 47, 592–602. doi:10.1037/a0022669.
Ward, L. M., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2014). The impact of men’s magazines on adolescent boys’ objectification and courtship beliefs. Journal of Adolescence, 39, 49–58. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.12.004.
Williams, D. (2006). Virtual cultivation: Online worlds, offline perceptions. Journal of Communication, 56, 69–87. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00004.x.
Woo, H., & Dominick, J. R. (2001). Daytime television talk shows and the cultivation effect among U.S. and international students. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45, 598–614. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4504_4.
Wright, J. C., Huston, A. C., Vandewater, E. A., Bickham, D. S., Scantlin, R. M., Kotler, J. A., … Finkelstein, J. (2001). American children's use of electronic media in 1997: A national survey. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 31–47. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(00)00064-2
Zurbriggen, E. L., & Morgan, E. M. (2006). Who wants to marry a millionaire? Reality dating television programs, attitudes toward sex, and sexual behaviors. Sex Roles, 54, 1–17. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-8865-2.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Giaccardi, S., Ward, L.M., Seabrook, R.C. et al. Media and Modern Manhood: Testing Associations Between Media Consumption and Young Men’s Acceptance of Traditional Gender Ideologies. Sex Roles 75, 151–163 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0588-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0588-z