Abstract
In this paper we focus on the difficulty in judging what is called covert hate speech. We emphasize the need for a multidimensional framework when analysing covert hate speech in situ, and the need to consider the multifaceted dimension of such speech act to assess its performativity. To explain such need, we apply the test of the Rabat Plan of Action and adopt a pragmatic perspective to analyse a specific covert hate speech act, considering such speech act as both an expressive and potentially performative act. We focus on the prosecution of hate speech against a woman holding a poster during an anti-safe pass demonstration. Her poster inferred a link between conspiracy theory, the government strategy addressing the Covid pandemic and many other collectives, primarily the Jewish community. Our analysis of the sign adopts a radically context-dependent methodology combining a pragmatic approach and the Rabat Plan of Action test. We then contrast our analysis with the legal and media perspective on the issue. We conclude by suggesting the benefit of integrating pragmatic analysis with application of normative set of rules such as the Rabat Plan of Action test, even though the fluidity of meaning always poses a challenge to any authority tasked with judging such communicative events.
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Notes
I would like to thank the reviewers for their thoughtful comments such as the reminder of the fluidity of meaning among many insightful suggestions.
All definitions are taken from the Cambridge online dictionary.
The notion of threat has been identified by psychologists as core to prejudice [17], prejudice also being core to hate speech.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/speech-acts/ However, the likelihood that these speech acts will be acted upon or be successful depends on a number of conditions that we will discuss below.
http://imsypp.ijs.si/. IMsyPP or Innovative Monitoring Systems and Prevention Policies of Online Hate Speech—is an EU REC AG project, ID 875263.
ibid.
It is to be noted that the Rabat Plan also included education initiatives, whose aim was to help prevent incitement to hatred, intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization and discrimination.
https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000006574933/ Any constituted authority, any public officer or civil servant who, in the exercise of his functions, acquires knowledge of a crime or an offense is required to give notice thereof without delay to the public prosecutor and to transmit to this magistrate all the information, minutes and documents relating thereto.
She risked a 1-year imprisonment and 45,000 euro penalty for not appearing in court. https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2021/08/10/mais-qui-de-la-blague-virale-au-slogan-antisemite_6091086_3224.html.
This polarized and dichotomous labelling which is supposed to describe vaccinated people and unvaccinated people simplifies a complex issue, combining a spectrum of different opinions on each side.
The manifestation of a conspiracy theory was affirmed by the Crif (Conseil Représentatif des Institutions Juives de France) which avowed “its deep disgust in the face of this imbecile conspiracy”.
Goldberg [35] notes that the NWO conspiracy is a centuries-old master conspiracy called first ‘Insiders’; he has detailed the various major events that have triggered such beliefs in the United States. These beliefs are then called upon to explain any major event, especially political events, but not exclusively.
https://lesnapoleons.com/en/speakers/rudy-reichstadt/. SOS Racisme also notes that there is no doubt about the meaning of this sign and therefore no doubt about the authority of propagandizing anti -Semitism.” The question 'But who?' is a coded question which refers to the accusation that Jews are an evil community and at the origin of all evil in the world.
https://vl-media.fr/mais-qui-que-cache-ce-slogan-brandi-dans-une-manifestation-anti-pass-sanitaire/ for access to Facebook posts under the BFMTV account; and https://www.ladepeche.fr/2021/08/04/qui-que-signifie-ce-nouveau-slogan-antisemite-des-manifestations-anti-pass-sanitaire-9713981.php. For 20 October we examined the comments on the website of Le Monde, https://www.lemonde.fr/police-justice/article/2021/10/20/cassandre-fristot-la-manifestante-a-la-pancarte-antisemite-mais-qui-condamnee-a-six-mois-de-prison-avec-sursis_6099246_1653578.html?contributions; YouTube video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bpt2e-0ukms.
For the quotations, we retained the original spelling, i.e., including errors.
A photograph showing C. Fristot posing with a Nazi cap.
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Baider, F. Covert Hate Speech, Conspiracy Theory and Anti-semitism: Linguistic Analysis Versus Legal Judgement. Int J Semiot Law 35, 2347–2371 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09882-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09882-w