Abstract
Focusing on labor non-governmental organizations and labor lawyers, this article examines the class roles of China’s labor-related civil society actors (CSAs) in migrant worker resistance. This article calls into question the intuitive sentiment in scholarship that by engaging in collective labor actions, China’s CSAs are axiomatically advancing worker interests. It builds on criticism of the mainstream approach towards civil society and on Gramsci’s insights on civil society and organic intellectuals to construct a typological spectrum to evaluate labor-related CSAs. Based on in-depth interviews, participant observations, and documentary research, this article contends that China’s labor-related CSAs can be classified as unqualified organic, semi-organic, or organic intellectuals of workers, hinging on their commitment and ability to 1) challenge the kind of common sense associated with capitalist economic relations; 2) challenge the kind of juridico-political common sense the state reproduces; 3) construct a kind of good sense and enhance workers’ class consciousness and political consciousness; and 4) build up workers’ collectivity, spur workers to take concerted actions and engage in system-transforming initiatives.
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Notes
This negligence is partly a reaction to Marx and Engel’s view of civil society, which was criticized for reducing civil society to an economic sphere (Cohen 1982). However, the literature on global civil society (GCS) has examined the economic traits of GSC more thoroughly. See, for example, Katz (2006) and Munck (2010).
Marxist thinkers have different opinions on the relations between intellectuals and the working class. For instance, Engels and Marx (1975) believed that critical intellectuals help develop the proletariat’s theoretical consciousness. Lenin (1973) held that cadre-intellectuals and political parties are crucial for workers to develop revolutionary consciousness. Gramsci maintained that intellectuals belong to various economic classes, as explained in this article. Poulantzas (1978) saw intellectuals as petty bourgeoisie. Wright (1978) argued that intellectuals play an ambiguous role and occupy contradictory locations within class relations. Gouldner (Gouldner 1975 & 1979) viewed intellectuals as the New Class, yet a flawed universal class.
LNGOs, like any organizations, are made up of people with diverse backgrounds and ideas. However, due to internal diffusion of practices and values (Strang and Soule 1998), organizations often have a certain degree of internal cohesion.
Analyzing reformism, Lenin underscored, “the Marxists wage a most resolute struggle against the reformists, who, directly or indirectly, restrict the aims and activities of the working class to the winning of reforms. Reformism is bourgeois deception of the workers, who, despite individual improvements, will always remain wage-slaves, as long as there is the domination of capital.” (Lenin 1977a, p. 372) I use the term “reformers” in similar, but less value-laden, ways. In this article, “reformers” refers to those who back workers’ struggles within the established juridico-political and economic systems, rather than support their struggles against such systems.
Here the term “revolutionaries” echoes how it is used in many Marxists writings (e.g. Lenin 1973 & 1977b; Gouldner 1975 & 1979; Draper 1977, and Boggs 1979). In essence, in this article “revolutionaries” refers to those who seek to support workers’ struggles against the established juridico-political and economic systems, rather than reforming those systems.
LNGO (2), (3), (8), (9).
Labor lawyer (2).
Such as Xiao Xiao Yu Labor Services and Yi Zhuan Yi Wa Migrant Workers Cultural Development Center. See CANGO Annual Report 2015, http://www.cango.org/upload/files/Annual%20%20Report%202015(1).pdf, accessed on October 14, 2016.
Ibid.
http://www.gdftu.org.cn/gyys/links/cydwwz/201208/t20120821_310365.htm, accessed on October 14, 2016.
Ibid.
The information on Legal Center’s activities is obtained from its annual report for 2014, 2015 and 2016, its website, and Interviews 48 & 49.
In 2016, it handled six collective disputes. See Legal Center’s annual report for 2016.
From 2013 to 2015, I participated in a research project that studied social insurance-related strikes, including this shoe factory strike. The research team conducted informal interviews with 20 workers during the strike and formal interviews with 15 workers after the strike. Also see interviews 33 & 34.
My own emphasis. I had a copy of this open letter.
My own emphasis.
From 2012 to 2013, I participated in a research project that investigated post-strike workplace relations in Guangdong. The research team interviewed 10 workers from this factory. Also see interviews 1, 44, 47 & 51.
China Collective Bargaining Forum, December 2011, p. 6.
The training was held in December 2012 in Shenzhen.
The training was held in November 2012 in Shenzhen.
In 2017, China’s GDP per capita ranks 74 and the U.S.’s ranks 8. See http://statisticstimes.com/economy/countries-by-projected-gdp-capita.php accessed on 18th December 2017.
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Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange (RG003-A-17) and the Career Development Award, the Center for Global Studies, Penn State University. An earlier version of this paper was presented in the XVIII International Sociological Association World Congress of Sociology, the Global Transformation of Work: Market Integration, China’s Rise, and Labor Adaptation Conference organized by the Rutgers University, and the Working Paper Series organized by the School of Labor and Employment Relations in Penn State University. The author would like to thank the participants of these meetings and Prof. Andreas Bieler for their valuable comment on the draft of the article.
Funding
This work was supported by Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange (RG003-A-17) and the Career Development Award, the Center for Global Studies, Penn State University.
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Appendix 1: List of interviewees
Appendix 1: List of interviewees
Interview number | Labor-related CSAs | City based | Interviewees | Date of interview |
|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | LNGO (1) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 20 September 2012 |
2 | LNGO (2) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 7 October 2012 |
3 | LNGO (2) | Shenzhen | Staff 2 | 19 November 2012/ 1 December 2012/ 24 May 2015 |
4 | LNGO (2) | Shenzhen | Staff 3 | 23December 2012 |
5 | LNGO (2) | Shenzhen | Staff 4 | 21 October 2012 |
6 | LNGO (2) | Shenzhen | Staff 4 | 23 December 2012 |
7 | LNGO (3) | Dongguan | Staff 1 | 16 December 2012 |
8 | LNGO (3) | Dongguan | Staff 2 | 16 December 2012 |
9 | LNGO (3) | Dongguan | Staff 3 | 29 October 2012 |
10 | LNGO (3) | Dongguan | Staff 4 | 29 October 2012 |
11 | LNGO (3) | Dongguan | Staff 5 | 29 October 2012 |
12 | LNGO (4) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 12 June 2015/ 7 July 2018 |
13 | LNGO (4) | Shenzhen | Staff 2 | 12 June 2015 |
14 | LNGO (5) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 14 April 2013 |
15 | LNGO (6) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 20 May 2013 |
16 | LNGO (6) | Shenzhen | Staff 2 | 20 May 2013 |
17 | LNGO (7) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 16 April 2015 |
18 | LNGO (7) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 25 April 2015 |
19 | LNGO (8) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 12 June 2016 |
20 | LNGO (8) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 28 May 2015 |
21 | LNGO (8) | Guangzhou | Staff 3 | 27 January 2013 |
22 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 5 May 2015/ 10 October 2015 |
23 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 6 May 2015/ 10 October 2015 |
24 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 3 | 24 May 2016 |
25 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 4 | 13 January 2013 |
26 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 5 | 24 May 2016/ 24 May 2018 |
27 | LNGO (9) | Guangzhou | Staff 6 | 24 May 2018 |
28 | LNGO (10) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 11 October 2012/ 23 May 2015 |
29 | LNGO (10) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 11 October 2012 |
30 | LNGO (11) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 2 May 2015/ 23 May 2018 |
31 | LNGO (11) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 19 May 2018 |
32 | LNGO (11) | Guangzhou | Staff 3 | 22 May 2018 |
33 | LNGO (12) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 12 June 2015 |
34 | LNGO (12) | Shenzhen | Staff 2 | 19 May 2018 |
35 | LNGO (13) | Guangzhou | Staff 1 | 31 May 2018 |
36 | LNGO (13) | Guangzhou | Staff 2 | 31 May 2018 |
37 | LNGO (14) | Dongguan | Staff 1 | 15 March 2013 |
38 | LNGO (14) | Dongguan | Staff 2 | 15 March 2013 |
39 | LNGO (15) | Huizhou | Staff 1 | 22 January 2013 |
40 | LNGO (16) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 15 April 2014 |
41 | LNGO (17) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 2 June 2015 |
42 | LNGO (18) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 28 June 2018 |
43 | LNGO (19) | Shenzhen | Staff 1 | 22 May 2018 |
44 | Rights lawyer (1) | Shenzhen | 14 September 2012 | |
45 | Rights lawyer (2) | Shenzhen | 9 April 2013 | |
46 | Rights lawyer (3) | Shenzhen | 20 September 2012 | |
47 | Legal assistant (1) | Shenzhen | 14 September 2012/ 30 October 2015/ 2 June 2018 | |
48 | Legal assistant (2) | Shenzhen | 23 June 2018 | |
49 | Legal assistant (3) | Shenzhen | 23 June 2018 | |
50 | Hong Kong labor activist (1) | Hong Kong | 23 October 2012/ 15 April 2013/ 4 June 2018 | |
51 | Hong Kong labor activist (2) | Hong Kong | 24 September 2012 | |
52 | Hong Kong labor activist (3) | Hong Kong | 7 October 2012/ 4 January 2015 | |
53 | Hong Kong labor activist (4) | Hong Kong | 29 January 2013 | |
54 | Hong Kong labor activist (5) | Hong Kong | 6 July 2014/ 17 May 2018 | |
55 | Hong Kong labor activist (6) | Hong Kong | 13 June 2015 | |
56 | Hong Kong labor activist (7) | Hong Kong | 18 May, 2018 | |
57 | Hong Kong labor activist (8) | Hong Kong | 18 May, 2018 | |
58 | Hong Kong labor activist (9) | Hong Kong | 18 May, 2018 | |
59 | Hong Kong labor activist (10) | Hong Kong | 19 June 2018 | |
60 | Hong Kong labor activist (11) | Hong Kong | 11 July 2018 | |
61 | Hong Kong labor activist (12) | Hong Kong | 19 June 2018 | |
62 | Hong Kong labor activist (13) | Hong Kong | 11 July 2018 | |
63 | Worker (1) | Dongguan | 24 March 2013 | |
64 | Worker (2) | Shenzhen | 13 January 2013, | |
65 | Worker (3) | Dongguan | 16 December 2012 | |
66 | Worker (4) | Shenzhen | 25 November 2012 | |
67 | Worker (5) | Shenzhen | 1 December 2012 | |
68 | Worker (6) | Shenzhen | 20 May 2013, | |
69 | Worker (7) | Shenzhen | 21 October 2012 | |
70 | Worker (8) | Dongguan | 16 December 2012 | |
71 | Worker (9) | Guangzhou | 1 June 2015 | |
72 | Worker (10) | Guangzhou | 1 June 2015 | |
73 | Worker (11) | Guangzhou | 1 June 2015 | |
74 | Worker (12) | Dongguan | 29 November 2012 | |
75 | Worker (13) | Shenzhen | 25 November 2012 | |
76 | Worker (14) | Shenzhen | 21 October 2012 | |
77 | Worker (15) | Dongguan | 16 December 2012 | |
78 | Guangdong provincial trade union official (1) | Guangzhou | 27 December 2012 | |
79 | Guangdong provincial trade union official (2) | Guangzhou | 7 December 2012 | |
80 | Guangdong provincial trade union official (3) | Guangzhou | 23 April 2013 | |
81 | Shenzhen district level trade union official (1) | Shenzhen | 21 April 2013 | |
82 | Shenzhen city level trade union official (1) | Shenzhen | 13 March2013 |
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Hui, E.Si. Labor-related civil society actors in China: a Gramscian analysis. Theor Soc 49, 49–74 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-019-09372-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-019-09372-2