Abstract
Progress on the fourth United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4), which strives to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education”, can only be made with teachers whose levels of job satisfaction and dedication to teaching are high. The authors of this article conducted a survey among ad hoc teachers (also referred to as para teachers) in rural India. The purpose of their study was to find out the extent to which being led by principals who practised a management style termed servant leadership positively impacted respondents’ affective commitment and psychological well-being. A servant leader seeks to serve by developing the followers’ selfhood in various relational, ethical, emotional and spiritual contexts. This has the effect of encouraging the followers to become the best version of themselves. Data collection involved the completion of a questionnaire by a sample of 1,120 (840 female, 280 male) para teachers from 17 non-formal community learning centres and 10 schools in the Indian state of Jharkhand. The results of the survey revealed that there is an indirect effect of servant leadership on affective commitment and psychological well-being through a set of three elements, hope, efficacy and resilience, which together amount to a para teacher’s personal resource of psychological capital. Relying on the findings of their research, the authors suggest that it will be beneficial for Jharkhand’s Department of Education to implement interventional teacher training programmes which nurture servant leadership among school principals and educational officers and thereby foster psychological capital among para teachers.
Résumé
L’effet du « servant leadership » (modèle alternatif au leadership autoritaire, popularisé dans les années 70, le servant leadership repose sur un concept selon lequel un supérieur se met au service de ses subordonnés pour atteindre un objectif commun, n.d.l.t.) sur l’engagement affectif et le bien-être psychologique des enseignants non permanents : le rôle de médiation du capital psychologique – Les progrès pour atteindre le quatrième Objectif de développement durable (ODD 4) des Nations Unies qui vise à « garantir une éducation de qualité inclusive et équitable » ne peuvent être réalisés qu’avec des enseignants que leur activité professionnelle satisfait pleinement et qui sont dévoués à l’enseignement. Les auteurs de cet article ont mené une enquête auprès des enseignants non permanents (également désignés du terme de para-enseignants) dans l’Inde rurale. Leur étude avait pour objectif de déterminer dans quelle mesure le fait de se trouver sous la responsabilité de directeurs qui pratiquaient une forme de gestion qualifiée du terme de servant leadership produisait un effet positif sur l’engagement affectif et le bien-être psychologique des personnes interrogées. Un « leader serviteur » cherche à servir en développant l’individualité des personnes sous sa responsabilité à différents points de vue : relationnels, éthiques, émotionnels et spirituels, ce qui a pour effet de les encourager à devenir la meilleure version d’elles-mêmes. Pour la collecte des données, un questionnaire a notamment été rempli par un échantillon de 1 120 para-enseignants (dont 840 femmes et 280 hommes) de 17 centres d’apprentissage communautaires non formels et de 10 écoles de l’État du Jharkhand en Inde. Les résultats de l’enquête ont révélé un effet indirect du servant leadership sur l’engagement affectif et le bien-être, illustré par trois éléments : l’espoir, l’efficacité et la résilience qui, pris ensemble, correspondent au capital psychologique personnel dont dispose un para-enseignant. S’appuyant sur les résultats de leurs recherches, les auteurs indiquent qu’il sera profitable pour le ministère de l’Éducation du Jharkhand de mettre en œuvre des programmes de formation des enseignants d’intervention alimentant le servant leadership chez les directeurs d’école et les fonctionnaires de l’éducation, et nourrissant ainsi le capital psychologique des para-enseignants.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The minimum required qualification for para teachers to teach in primary schools (instructing children aged 6–10) is matriculation from Grade X, the final year of lower secondary school. For government-run upper primary schools (instructing children aged 10–14), it is the Intermediate (Higher Secondary Certificate), awarded after passing the final school leaving exam at the end of Grade XII, the final year of upper secondary school. These requirements are stipulated in both the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) (GoI 1993a) and the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) scheme (GoI 2011). However, according to Educational Consultants India Limited (EdCIL), a consultancy working under the Indian Ministry of Human Resource Development, “Professional qualification is not mandatory” (EdCIL 2009, p. 51).
The term was coined by Robert Greenleaf (1970).
“Indigenous communities of India are commonly referred to as tribal or adivasi communities and are recognised as Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution of India” (Kumar 2008, p. 3).
Elementary level comprises 5 years of primary (Grades I–V) and 3 years of upper primary school (Grades VI–VIII).
In 2017, Jharkhand had a total of 48,389 elementary schools, of which 38,518 were government-run and 1,140 were government-aided (JEPC 2017, p. 7).
The caste system, a 2,000 year-old form of social stratification, still shapes Indian society today. Hierarchically situated on the lowest level of this system, and thus socially disadvantaged, are members of so-called scheduled tribes and scheduled castes.
Regular teachers receive their salary plus pension fund contributions, gratuity payments (after a minimum of 5 years of service) and bonuses (related to their performance), and they are granted paid annual leave.
Indeed, in 2015, many para teachers took to the streets of Ranchi, the capital of Jharkhand, to claim their rights (Roy 2015).
This means that existing schools are not being operated, due to a lack of proper infrastructure or teachers, passivity of pupils and government inaction.
According to the foundation’s own website, “Azim Premji Foundation is a not-for-profit organisation that has been working since 2000 with the elementary education system in rural government schools” (Azim Premji Foundation, n.d.).
The purpose of confirmatory factor analysis is to test whether the collected data fit a hypothesised measurement model.
An apostolate is a field of active engagement (usually of a Catholic religious community); a kind of self-imposed mandate to get involved in social outreach.
Another important legal framework is the new National Education Policy approved on 29 July 2020 (GoI 2020). Though it does not mention para teachers, disadvantaged rural areas are taken into account. “Incentives will be provided for teachers to take up teaching jobs in rural areas, especially in areas that are currently facing acute shortage of quality teachers” (GoI 2020, p. 20).
References
Adil, A., & Kamal, A. (2016). Impact of psychological capital and authentic leadership on work engagement and job-related affective wellbeing. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 31(1), 1–21.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affect, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990.tb00506.x.
Alsievi, A. M., & Agil, S. O. S. (2014). Factors that influence affective commitment to teachers in Libya. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 16(2), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.9790/487X-16233746.
Alvi, U. (2017). The effect of psychological wellbeing on employee job performance: Comparison between the employees of projectized and non-projectized organizations. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Organization Management, 06(01), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-026X.1000206.
Avey, J. B., Reichard, R. J., Luthans, F., & Mhatre, K. H. (2011). Meta-analysis of the impact of positive psychological capital on employee attitudes, behaviors, and performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(2), 127–152. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20070.
Awee, A., Cheah, W.-Y., Cheng, C.-N., Hong, K.-S., Ling, L.-B., & Tan, M.-C. (2014). Effect of servant leadership on affective commitment among hotel employees. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4(11), 1–7.
Azim Premji Foundation. (n.d.). About us: Who we are [dedicated webpage]. Bangalore: Azim Premji Foundation. Retrieved August 4, 2020, from https://azimpremjifoundation.org/about/who-we-are.
Bhattacharjee, S. (2013). Evolutionary roots of informal education : An empirical study on coaching centre’s requirement from student’s perspective in Ranchi district. European Journal of Commerce and Management Research, 2(9), 204–208.
Blândul, V. C., Marinescu, M., Orţan, F., Bradea, A., & Lăzuran, A. L. (2016). Some characteristics of teachers from non-formal education perspective. International Journal on Lifelong Education and Leadership, 2(1), 42–46.
Bouzari, M., & Karatepe, O. M. (2017). Test of a mediation model of psychological capital among hotel salespeople. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(8), 2178–2197. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-01-2016-0022.
Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301.
Chandra, M. (2015). The implications of contract teaching in India: A review. Policy Futures in Education, 13(2), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210314567288.
Choong, Y., Wong, K.-L., & Lau, T.-C. (2011). Intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment in the Malaysian private higher education institutions: An empirical study. Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, II(4), 91–100.
Coetzer, M. F., Bussin, M. H. R., & Geldenhuys, M. (2017). Servant leadership and work-related well-being in a construction company. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 43, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v43i0.1478.
Coggins, E., & Bocarnea, M. (2015). The impact of servant leadership to followers’ psychological capital: A comparative study of evangelical Christian leader-follower relationships in the United States and Cambodia. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 12(4), 111–144.
Dagar, N., & Mathur, M. (2016). Mental health of school teachers in relation to their sex and type of school. International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration, 6(1), 49–53.
Demirkasimoglu, N. (2015). The meaning of work in teachers’ lives: A qualitative study. Anthropologist, 22(2), 412–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2015.11891894.
Dutta, S., & Khatri, P. (2017). Servant leadership and positive organizational behaviour: The road ahead to reduce employees’ turnover intentions. On the Horizon, 25(1), 60–82. https://doi.org/10.1108/OTH-06-2016-0029.
EdCIL (India) Ltd. (2009). Deployment and professional competence of para-teachers. Abridged report. New Delhi: EdCIL Research, Evaluation and Studies Unit Technical Support Group. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from https://www.educationforallinindia.com/study-on-para-teachers.pdf
Ehrhart, M. G. (2002). Leadership and procedural justice climate as antecedents of unit-level organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 57(1), 61–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2004.tb02484.x.
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.004.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 359(1449), 1367–1377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512.
Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 25(2), 186–192. https://doi.org/10.2307/3172650.
Gholamitooranposhti, M. (2012). Teachers’ mental health. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69 (special issue International Conference on Education & Educational Psychology [ICEEPSY] 2012), 1295–1301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.065.
GoI (Government of India). (1993a). District primary education programme guidelines. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Department of Education. Retrieved August 18, 2020, from http://14.139.60.153/bitstream/123456789/59/1/DPEP%20guidelines.pdf.
GoI. (1993b). National Council for Teacher Education Act. New Delhi: Government of India. Retrieved August 7, 2020, from http://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1993-73_0.pdf.
GoI. (2002). The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002. New Delhi: Government of India. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-india/amendments/constitution-india-eighty-sixth-amendment-act-2002.
GoI. (2009). The right of children to free and compulsory education (RTE) Act, 2009. New Delhi: Government of India. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from http://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/The%20Right%20of%20Children%20to%20Free%20and%20Compulsory%20Education%20Act%2C%202009.pdf.
GoI. (2011). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Framework for implementation. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of School Education & Literacy. Retrieved August 18, 2020, from https://www.mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/SSA-Frame-work.pdf.
GoI. (2019). National Council for Teacher Education (Amendment) Bill. New Delhi: Government of India. Retrieved August 7, 2020, from https://ncte.gov.in/WebAdminFiles/RecentAnnouncement/NCTE%20AMENDMENT%20ACT-%2011%20Jan,%202019.pdf.
GoI. (2020). National Education Policy 2020. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development. Retrieved August 7, 2020, from https://www.mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/nep/NEP_Final_English.pdf.
Goyal, S., & Pandey, P. (2013). Contract teachers in India (English). Author accepted manuscript. South Asia Sector for Education. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/197571468268167887/Contract-teachers-in-India
Greenleaf, R. K. (1970). The servant as a leader. Indianapolis, IN: Robert K. Greenleaf Publishing Center.
Harwiki, W. (2016). The impact of servant leadership on organization culture, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and employee performance in women cooperatives. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 219, 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.04.032.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: The Guilford Press.
Iredale, R. (1978). Non-formal education in India: Dilemmas and initiatives. Comparative Education, 14(3), 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305006780140308.
JEPC (Jharkhand Education Project Council). (2017). Annual report (2017–18). Ranchi: JSCA. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from http://164.164.122.169:8090/JEPC/public/documents/Annual%20Report/2017-18/English.pdf.
Kalman, M., & Summak, M. S. (2017). Revitalizing the HERO within teachers: An analysis of the effects of the PsyCap development training. The Qualitative Report, 22(3), 655–682.
Kim, M., Kim, A. C. H., Newman, J. I., Ferris, G. R., & Perrewé, P. L. (2019). The antecedents and consequences of positive organizational behavior: The role of psychological capital for promoting employee well-being in sport organizations. Sport Management Review, 22(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2018.04.003.
Kingdon, G. G., Sipahimalani-Rao, V., Sarup, V., Kaul, A., Rao, N., Singh, R. P., et al. (2010). Para-teachers in India: Status and impact. Economic and Political Weekly, 45(12), 59–67.
Kingdon, G., Aslam, M., Rawal, S., & Das, S. (2013). Are contract teachers and para-teachers a cost-effective intervention to address teacher shortage and improve learning outcomes? London: Evidence for Policy and Practice Information (EPPI) and Co-ordinating Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a1fe5274a27b200042d/Parateachers2013Kingdon.pdf.
Kumar, A. (2008). Universal primary education among tribals in Jharkhand: A situational analysis [online article]. Washington, DC: Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) clearinghouse. Retrieved August 3, 2020, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED500704.pdf.
Kumar, C., & Bunga, A. (2019). Same work, minimal pay: Analyzing the contract teaching phenomenon in India. The Bastion, 8 February 2019 [online article]. Retrieved August 31, 2020, from https://thebastion.co.in/politics-and/education/same-work-minimal-pay-analyzing-the-contract-teaching-phenomena-in-india/
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Zhao, H., & Henderson, D. (2008). Servant leadership: Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. Leadership Quarterly, 19(2), 161–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.01.006.
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Meuser, J. D., Hu, J., Wu, J., & Liao, C. (2015). Servant leadership: Validation of a short form of the SL-28. Leadership Quarterly, 26(2), 254–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.12.002.
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M. (2006). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention Brief Introduction to PsyCap The Input of Hope Development. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 27(3), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.373.
Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00083.x.
Luthans, F., Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). Psychological capital and beyond. New York: Oxford University Press.
Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage. Organizational Dynamics, 33(2), 143–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2004.01.003.
Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2007). Emerging positive organizational behavior. Journal of Management, 33(3), 321–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307300814.
Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital : An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, 4, 339–366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324.
Mathew, C. T. (2003). A study of organizational commitment of degree college teachers in relation to work values, self-actualization and leader behavior of principals. Indian Educational Abstracts, 4(1), 86–87.
Mehrotra, S., Tripathi, R., & Banu, H. (2013). Psychological well-being : Reflections on an elusive construct and its assessment. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 39(2), 189–195.
Meyer, J. P., & Maltin, E. R. (2010). Employee commitment and well-being: A critical review, theoretical framework, and research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(2), 323–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.04.007.
O’Reilly, C. A., & Chatman, J. (1986). Organizational commitment and psychological attachment: The effects of compliance, identification, and internalization on prosocial behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 492–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.492.
Pailwar, V. K., & Mahajan, V. (2005). Janshala in Jharkhand: An experiment with community involvement in education. International Education Journal, 6(3), 373–385.
Palomino, M. C. P. (2017). An analysis of self-concept in students with compensatory education needs for developing a mindfulness-based psychoeducational program. SAGE Open, 7(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017708818.
Pandey, S. (2006). Para-teacher scheme and quality education for all in India: Policy perspectives and challenges for school effectiveness. Journal of Education for Teaching, 32(3), 319–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607470600782468.
Pandya, R., & Maniar, A. (2014). Non-formal education: An Indian context. Indore: International Science Congress Association (ISCA), International E-Publication. Retrieved July 20, 2020, from http://www.isca.co.in/SOC_HU_SCI/book/ISBN%20978-93-84648-51-0.pdf.
Patnaik, G. (2013). Impact of optimism and positive emotions on mental health. Social Science International, 29(1), 121–127.
Perreira, T. A., Morin, A. J. S., Hebert, M., Gillet, N., Houle, S. A., & Berta, W. (2018). The short form of the Workplace Affective Commitment Multidimensional Questionnaire (WACMQ-S): A bifactor-ESEM approach among healthcare professionals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 62–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.12.004.
Peterson, R. A. (1994). A meta-analysis of Cronbach’ s Coefficient Alpha. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1086/209405.
Peterson, C., & Chang, E. C. (2004). Optimism and flourishing. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 55–79). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10594-003.
Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work: An identity perspective. In K. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 309–327). San Francisco, CA: Berret-Koehler.
Rachmawati, A. W., & Lantu, D. C. (2014). Servant leadership theory development & measurement. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 115, 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.445.
Rana, K., & Das, S. (2004). Primary education in Jharkhand. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(11), 1171+1173–1178.
Rivkin, W., Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K.-H. (2014). The positive relationship between servant leadership and employees’ psychological health : A multi-method approach. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, 28(1–2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/239700221402800104.
Rosario Núñez, A., Marquez, E., Zayas, M., & López, E. (2020). Relationship between organizational citizenship and commitment in Puerto Rico banks. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(7–8), 643–658. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-02-2020-0028.
Roy, S. (2015). Jharkhand govt on back foot as 80,000 teachers launch protests. Hindustan Times, 25 August [online article]. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from https://www.hindustantimes.com/ranchi/jharkhand-govt-on-back-foot-as-80-000-teachers-launch-protests/story-gpmBTuMdvVkJVE3jsCHQeP.html.
Rusu, R. (2013). Affective organizational commitment, continuance organizational commitment, or normative organizational commitment? Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre, 18(2), 192–197.
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772395.
Salim, M., Kamarudin, H., & Kadir, M. B. A. (2010). Factors affecting organizational commitment among lecturers in higher educational institution in Malaysia [online article]. Retrieved August 16, 2020, from http://e-library.unw.ac.id/images/jurnal/4e5e0cd9c876e8652f3e7ad21908b474.pdf.
Satyasavitri, V. B., & Honakeri, P. M. (2018). Impact of Ashram schools: Issues and challenges of tribal education in India. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 8(2), 475–478.
Schoemmel, K., & Jønsson, T. S. (2014). Multiple affective commitments: Quitting intentions and job performance. Employee Relations, 36(5), 516–534. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-08-2013-0116.
Schwab, D. P. (2005). Research methods for organizational studies (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Setyaningrum, R. P. (2017). Relationship between servant leadership in organizational culture, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour, and customer satisfaction. European Research Studies Journal, XX(3A), 554–569.
Shahnawaz, M. G., & Jafri, M. H. (2009). Psychological capital as predictors of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 35, 78–84.
Srivastava, U. R., & Maurya, V. (2017). Organizational and individual level antecedents of psychological capital and its associated outcomes: Development of a conceptual framework. Management and Labour Studies, 42(3), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0258042X17718739.
Teimouri, H., Hosseini, S. H., & Ardeshiri, A. (2018). The role of ethical leadership in employee psychological well-being (case study: Golsar Fars Company). Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 28(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1424063.
Thomas, J. P., Whitman, D. S., & Viswesvaran, C. (2010). Employee proactivity in organizations: A comparative meta-analysis of emergent proactive constructs. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(2), 275–300. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317910X502359.
Tischler, L., Giambatista, R., McKeage, R., & McCormick, D. (2016). Servant leadership and its relationships with core self-evaluation and job satisfaction. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 9(1), Art. 8. http://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol9/iss1/8.
Upmanyu, M. C. (2016). The tribal education in India: Status, challenges and issues. International Journal of Novel Research in Education and Learning, 3(6), 96–102.
Vermaak, D. (1985). Education and development: The role of non-formal education, especially in developing countries. Development Southern Africa, 2(3), 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/03768358508439171.
Warkineh, T. Z., Rogers, A., & Danki, T. N. (2018). Profiling adult literacy facilitators in development contexts: An ethnographic study in Ethiopia. International Review of Education, 64(1), 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-017-9686-6.
WMA (World Medical Association). (1964). Declaration of Helsinki. Ferney-Voltaire: WMA. Retrieved August 6, 2020, from https://www.wma.net/what-we-do/medical-ethics/declaration-of-helsinki/.
Yoloye, E. A. (1987). Relationship between the work of teachers in nonformal settings and in schools. International Review of Education, 33(3), 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615306.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Clarence, M., Devassy, V.P., Jena, L.K. et al. The effect of servant leadership on ad hoc schoolteachers’ affective commitment and psychological well-being: The mediating role of psychological capital. Int Rev Educ 67, 305–331 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09856-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09856-9