Abstract
Aim
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been used for estimating root biomass, estimating pull-out resistance force of roots, and reconstructing root system architecture. Although GPR can estimate the diameter of a single root, it has not yet been verified whether it can successfully estimate the diameters of adjacent roots or whether rock fragments occurring in the soil matrix can be misidentified as roots. This study aimed to (1) evaluate the visual properties of GPR images of root bundles and rock fragments, and (2) clarify whether they have the potential to create non-negligible errors in GPR surveys.
Methods
Root bundle samples buried in a sandy soil bed were scanned using 900 MHz and 1500 MHz antennas. Sole roots of Cryptomeria japonica and rock fragments in the bed were also scanned.
Results
A bundle of root formed one hyperbola with an apex in the radar profile, like a sole root. However, the contrast of the hyperbolas was weak and GPR indices relating to diameter were reduced compared to those of the comparably sized sole root. Stones did not form clear images, but boulders were faintly visible with non-negligible GPR indices.
Conclusions
For evaluation of root biomass, adjacent roots had the potential to lead to significant errors. Similarly, in reconstructions of root system architecture, adjacent roots might lead to incorrect modelling of root point connections, because of incorrect diameters. For pull-out resistance force, adjacent roots could lead to only underestimation, i.e., safe-side error. Misidentification of rock fragments as roots depends on their sizes.
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modified from Tanikawa et al. 2013a). a A representative reflected hyperbola in a radar profile of a target (a wooden dowel) buried at a depth of 30 cm; b the reflection waveforms and the four waveform indices extracted in this study: the sum of the time intervals between zero crossings for all of the reflection waveforms (∑T, ns); the time interval between zero crossings of the maximum reflection waveform (Single Tmax, ns); the sum of the amplitude areas for all of the reflection waveforms (∑A, dB × ns); and the amplitude area for the maximum reflection waveform (Single Amax, dB × ns)
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Abbreviations
- A :
-
Amplitude area
- ∑A :
-
Sum of amplitude areas for all reflection waveforms
- Single A max :
-
Amplitude area of the maximum reflection waveform
- GPR:
-
Ground-penetrating radar
- T :
-
Time interval between zero crossings
- ∑T :
-
Sum of time intervals for all reflection waveforms
- Single T max :
-
Time interval for the maximum reflection waveform
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Acknowledgements
We thank S. Narayama, T. Chikaguchi, M. Tanaka, S. Asano, Y. Shimada, U. Kurokawa, N. Makita, H. Hagino, and the other members of FFPRI for their help with data analysis and the field experiments. We also thank M. Ohashi (University of Hyogo) for providing comments on an early draft of this manuscript.
Funding
This study was supported by KAKENHI Grants (Nos. JP20H03040, JP20H03028) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and by the Program to Support Research Activities of Female Researchers funded by the MEXT Special Coordination Fund for Promoting Science and Technology.
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Conceptualization: TT, YH; Methodology: TT, YH; Model calculation: TT, HI; Formal analysis and investigation: All authors; Writing: TT.
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Tanikawa, T., Ikeno, H., Yamase, K. et al. Can ground-penetrating radar detect adjacent roots and rock fragments in forest soil?. Plant Soil 468, 239–257 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-021-05116-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-021-05116-3