Abstract
Many countries are exploring alternative strategies to counter rising flood risk as there is concern at the extra burden that such increasing risk will bring. The aim of this paper is to explore the nature of these burdens and outline responses in the United Kingdom (UK) where both the government and the private flood insurers have new policies and proposals. Our method is to collate the extensive existing authoritative data and information—from government and the insurance industry—about the risks that are being experienced and the related policy responses. The results show that these seek to concentrate somewhat more the financial burden of, respectively, flood risk management costs and insurance provisions on to those who are at risk and away from the general taxpayer and those who pay insurance premiums. Other countries may well learn from these developments. The pre-existing cross-subsidies are being reduced, and in this way, it is hoped that extra resources for risk management investment will be forthcoming (from local contributions from at-risk communities) and flood insurance will remain affordable, available and commercially viable. A key conclusion here is that it appears that any increase in flood frequency and severity in the UK appears likely to affect the financially deprived communities to a greater extent than others, not least because they are less likely to insure. Government arrangements to prioritise their contribution to risk reduction towards these financially deprived communities are signs that this regressive effect of floods is real and serious and those arrangements are to be welcomed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
As defined by the National Flood Risk Assessment (NaFRA) as areas where the chance of flooding in any one year is greater than 1.3 % (Environment Agency, undated). After this point, the term “significant” relates to risks of this probability.
By 2014, the agreed and formally “signed off” Partnership Funding local contributions amounted to some £60 million, but the total agreed was nearer £150 million.
Alan Bell (Morpeth Flood Action Group; personal communication April 9, 2014)
Source: Daniel Johns, Secretariat, Climate Change Committee, 10.6.2014.
A local form of taxation in England, Wales and Scotland collected from all residential properties. The tax is broadly related to the capital value of a property which are arranged into eight bands A–H (nine in Wales).
In 2014, this remains yet to be resolved.
References
Adaptation Sub-Committee (2012) Climate change—is the UK preparing for flooding and water scarcity? Committee on Climate Change, London
Arnell N (2000) Flood insurance. In: Parker D J (ed) Floods, Routledge, London
Association of British Insurers (ABI) (2010) Under-pricing of the flood element of home insurance for domestic customers at significant risk, ABI Research Brief, September 2010. Association of British Insurers, London
Association of British Insurers (ABI) (2013) Flood Re proposal: memorandum of understanding, 26th June 2013. https://consult.defra.gov.uk/flooding/floodinsurance/supporting_documents/20130626%20Flood%20Insurance%20MOU%20June%202013%20unprotected.pdf. Cited 30 June 2013
Bavarian State Ministry of the Environment (2006) River basin agenda for Alpine space. Model and examples for sustainable development of the Alpine river basins. Short Report, Munich, Germany
Botzen WJW, van den Bergh JCJM (2008) Insurance against climate change and flooding in the Netherlands: present, future, and comparison with other countries. Risk Anal 28(2):413–426
Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft (2006) Hochwasserschutz in Österreich—flood protection in Austria. 2nd Edition. Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft, Vienna
Climate Change Risk Assessment (2012) Floods and coastal erosion: sector perspective (summary). Defra, London
Comité Européen des Assurances (2005) The insurance of natural events on European markets, Property Insurance Committee, AB 5050 (06/05). Comité Européen des Assurances, Paris, France
Consorcio de Compensacion de Seguros (2008) Natural catastrophes insurance cover. A diversity of systems. Consorcio de Compensacion de Seguros, Madrid, Spain
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2004) Making space for water: developing a new government strategy for flood and coastal erosion risk management in England. A consultation exercise. Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, London
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2011a) Flood and coastal resilience partnership funding: Defra policy statement on an outcome-focused, partnership approach to funding flood and coastal erosion risk management. May 2011. Defra, London
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2011b) More flood and coastal defence schemes to go ahead under new funding system, Environment Minister, Partnership funding announcement, 23 May 2011, http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2011/05/23/more-flood-defence-schemes/. Cited. 9 April 2013
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2013a) Securing the future availability and affordability of home insurance in areas of flood risk June 2013, Full consultation document, Defra, London. https://consult.defra.gov.uk/flooding/floodinsurance/supporting_documents/20130626%20FINAL%20Future%20of%20Flood%20Insurance%20%20consultation%20document.pdf. Cited 30 June 2013
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2013b) Securing the future of flood insurance: an introductory guide. Defra, London https://consult.defra.gov.uk/flooding/floodinsurance/supporting_documents/20130626%20FINAL%20Flood%20Insurance%20%20Introductory%20Note.pdf. Cited 30 June 2013
Environment Agency (undated) Understanding flood risk. Our National Flood Risk Assessment (NaFRA). Environment Agency, Bristol
Environment Agency (2011) Adapting to climate change: advice for flood and coastal erosion risk management authorities. Bristol, Environment Agency
European Parliament and the Council (2007) Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks, ‘EU Floods Directive.’ L288 of the Official Journal of the European Union
Evans E, Ashley R, Hall J, Penning-Rowsell EC, Sayers P, Thorne C, Watkinson A (2004) Foresight future flooding, scientific summaries: volume 1 future risks and their drivers and volume 2 Managing future risk. Office of Science and Technology, London
Faure M (2004) Financial compensation in case of catastrophes: a European law and economics perspective. Documents de Recherche du Centre d’Analyse Economique, DR 10-03/04. METRO Institute, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
Fiselier J, Oosterber W (2004) A quick scan of spatial measures and instruments for flood risk reduction in selected EU countries. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management, RIZA Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment
Garrelts H, Lange H (2011) Path dependencies and path change in complex fields of action: climate adaptation policies in Germany in the realm of flood risk management. Ambio 40:200–209
Gaschen S, Hausmann P, Menzinger I, Schaad W (1998) Floods—an insurable risk? A market survey, Swiss Re, Zurich, Switzerland
HM Government (2008) Climate Change Act 2008. The Stationery Office, London. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/36/introduction. Cited 3 April 2013
Hannaford J, Marsh TJ (2008) High-flow and flood trends in a network of undisturbed catchments in the UK. Int J Climatol 28(10):1325–1338
Harries T (2009) Review of the Pilot Flood Protection Grant Scheme in a recently flooded area, R&D Technical Report FD2651/TR. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), London
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013) Summary for policymakers. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds) Climate Change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
JBA Consulting Ltd (2012) Evaluation of the Defra Property-level Flood Protection Scheme: 25918, Summary Report, Report prepared by JBA Consulting for the Environment Agency, March 2012. http://a0768b4a8a31e106d8b0-50dc802554eb38a24458b98ff72d550b.r19.cf3.rackcdn.com/geho0312bwdve-e.pdf. Cited 11 November 2013
Johns D (2011) Understanding the risks, building resilience, empowering communities: a benefit-led, partnership approach to funding. PowerPoint presentation, Defra, London
Johnson C, Penning-Rowsell EC, Parker DJ (2007) Natural and imposed injustices: the challenges in implementing ‘fair’ flood risk management policy in England. Geogr J 173:374–390
Lamond J, Penning-Rowsell EC (2014) The robustness of flood insurance regimes given changing risk resulting from climate change. Clim Risk Manage 2:1–10
Lamond J, Proverbs D, Hammond F (2009) Accessibility of flood risk insurance in the UK—confusion, competition and complacency. J Risk Res 12(5):825–840
Michel-Kerjan E (2001) Insurance against natural disasters: do the French have the answer? Strengths and limitations. Working paper 2001. Laboratoire d’économétrie, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (1999) Flood and Coastal Defence Project Appraisal Guidance (FCDPAG3) Economic Appraisal. MAFF, London
O’Neill J, O’Neill M (2012) Social justice and the future of flood insurance. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York
Office of National Statistics (ONS) (2011) Living Costs and Food Survey 2011. UK Data Service, Identifier 10.5255/UKDA-SN-7272-2, http://discover.ukdataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/?sn=7272&type=Data%20catalogue. Cited 11 April 2014
Pardoe JL, Penning-Rowsell EC, Cope M (2013) Alternative investment streams for flood risk management and flood insurance: an analysis of “who gains and who loses?”. In: Klijn F, Schweckendiek T (eds) Comprehensive flood risk management: research for policy and practice. Taylor and Francis, London
Penning-Rowsell EC (2013) A ‘realist’ approach to the extent of flood risk in England and Wales. In: Klijn F, Schweckendiek T (eds) Comprehensive flood risk management: research for policy and practice. Taylor and Francis, London
Penning-Rowsell EC (2014a) A realistic assessment of fluvial and coastal flood risk in England and Wales. T I Brit Geogr (in press). doi:10.1111/tran.12053
Penning-Rowsell EC (2014b) The 2013/14 floods: what do they tell us about overall flood risk in England and Wales? Circulation 121:1–3
Penning-Rowsell EC, Pardoe JL (2012a) Who loses if flood risk is reduced: should we be concerned? Area 44(2):152–159
Penning-Rowsell EC, Pardoe JL (2012b) Who benefits and who loses from flood risk reduction? Environ Plann C 30:448–466
Penning-Rowsell EC, Pardoe JL (2014) The distributional impacts of climate and policy change: flood risk management in England and Wales. Environ Plann C (in press). doi:10.1068/c13241
Penning-Rowsell EC, Parker DJ, Harding DM (1986) Floods and drainage: British policies for hazard reduction, agricultural improvement and wetland conservation. Allen and Unwin, London
Penning-Rowsell EC, Priest SJ, Johnson CJ (2014) The evolution of UK flood insurance: incremental change over six decades. Int J Water Resour D (in press). doi:10.1080/07900627.2014.903166
Porrini D, Schwarze R (2014) Insurance models and European climate change policies: an assessment. Eur J Intl L 38:7–28
Priest SJ (2003) Responding to flood risk in the UK: a strategic reappraisal, Unpublished PhD Thesis. Department of Geography, University of Southampton
Priest SJ (2014) Review of international flood insurance and recovery mechanisms: implications for New Zealand and the resilience of older people. Research report for the Community Resilience and Good Ageing: Doing Better in Bad Times Project. http://resilience.goodhomes.co.nz/publications/. Cited 20 October 2014
Priest SJ, Clark MJ, Treby EJ (2005) UK Flood insurance: the challenge of the uninsured. Area 37(3):295–302
Ramsbottom D, Sayers P, Panzeri M (2012) Climate Change Risk Assessment for the floods and coastal erosion sector. Defra, London
Samuels P, Gouldby B (2009) Language of risk: project definitions (2nd Edition). HR Wallingford, Wallingford. http://www.floodsite.net/html/partner_area/project_docs/floodsite_language_of_risk_v4_0_p1.pdf Cited 20 October 2014
Tapsell SM, Penning-Rowsell EC, Tunstall SM, Wilson TL (2002) Vulnerability to flooding: health and social dimensions, flood risk in a changing climate. Philos Trans R Soc London, Ser A 360(1796):1511–1525
Tapsell SM, Tunstall SM, Priest SJ (2009) Developing a conceptual model of flood impact upon human health, Report T10-09-02 for the Integrated Project FLOOD site. Flood Hazard Research Centre. London. http://www.floodsite.net/html/partner_area/project_docs/T10-09-02_Health_Impacts__Model_v1_1_Pn10.pdf. Cited 20 October 2014
Ministeri van Loudbouw, Natur en Voedselkwaliteit (2006) Spatial planning key decision: room for the river. Investing in the Safety and Vitalist of the Dutch River Basin Region. Arnhem, The Netherlands
Van Rijswick HFMW, Havekes HJM (2012) European and Dutch Water Law. Europa Law Publishing, Groningen
Walker G, Burningham K (2012) Flood risk, vulnerability and environmental justice: evidence and evaluation of inequality in a UK context. Crit Soc Pol 31:216–241
Wallingford HR (2008) Who benefits from flood management policies? R&D final report FD2606. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), London
Wicks J, Clarke J, Lovell L, Priest SJ, Parker D (2012) Benefits of FIM and LUM: accompanying report to ‘Benefits of non-structural responses: baseline and scenario analysis for England and Wales’ Unpublished research report prepared by Halcrow for the Environment Agency, Bristol
Acknowledgments
This work was undertaken as part of the Knowledge for Climate Programme (http://knowledgeforclimate.climateresearchnetherlands.nl/), and the authors acknowledge the support provided. The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments about the paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Penning-Rowsell, E.C., Priest, S.J. Sharing the burden of increasing flood risk: who pays for flood insurance and flood risk management in the United Kingdom. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 20, 991–1009 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-014-9622-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-014-9622-z