Abstract
Context
Regional ecological networks play an important role in biodiversity conservation and should be constructed and optimized for continued ecosystem functioning.
Objectives
Taking a tropical region in Southwest China as the study area, we aimed to propose a new method for constructing ecological networks for Asian elephants affected by human disturbance by focusing on the importance of steppingstones for optimization.
Methods
Source areas were extracted using a combination of morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) and the importance of patches (PC) index. A network connecting source areas was then constructed using circuit theory. Steppingstones were added near the breaks in corridors to optimize the ecological network.
Results
The quality of the southern key corridors in the study area has improved since 1990, but few corridors connect the southern with the central and northern regions. Compared with the ecological network in 2015, the average current density more than doubled, and the potential corridor area increased by approximately eight times from 8.07 to 65.05 km2 after optimization. The connectivity between the north and south was apparently enhanced, and the landscape connectivity of the entire region had improved.
Conclusions
Source areas can be effectively determined through the integrated use of MSPA and the PC index. Our study also confirmed that small steppingstones, which were selected based on the corridor identification results, have a strong impact on improving landscape connectivity. This study provides a method for the selection of source areas and is an important reference for the planning and optimization of ecological networks.
Graphic Abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Blake S, Hedges S (2004) Sinking the flagship: the case of forest elephants in Asia and Africa. Conserv Biol 18(5):1191–1202
Braaker S, Moretti M, Boesch R, Ghazoul J, Obrist M, Bontadina F (2014) Assessing habitat connectivity for ground-dwelling animals in an urban environment. Ecol Appl 24(7):1583–1595
Buij R, McShea WJ, Campbell P, Lee ME, Dallmeier F, Guimondou S, Mackaga L, Guisseougou N, Mboumba S, Hines JE, Nichols JD, Alonso A (2007) Patch-occupancy models indicate human activity as major determinant of forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis seasonal distribution in an industrial corridor in Gabon. Biol Cons 135(2):189–201
Bunn AG, Urban DL, Keitt TH, Clarke K, Parks B, Crane M (2000) Landscape connectivity: a conservation application of graph theory. J Environ Manage 59(4):265–278
Cao M, Zhang J (1997) Tree species diversity of tropical forest vegetation in Xishuangbanna SW China. Biodivers Conserv 6(7):995–1006
Chardon JP, Adriaensen F, Matthysen E (2003) Incorporating landscape elements into a connectivity measure: a case study for the Speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria L.). Landsc Ecol 18(6):561–573
Chen Y, Marino J, Chen Y, Tao Q, Macdonald D (2016) Predicting hotspots of human-elephant conflict to inform mitigation strategies in Xishuangbanna Southwest China. PLoS ONE 11(9):e0162035
Christensen V, Pauly D (1992) ECOPATH II: a software for balancing steady-state ecosystem models and calculating network characteristics. Ecol Model 61(3–4):169–185
Claudia P, Skidmore A, Gils H, McCall M, Prins H (2013) Smallholder farms as stepping stone corridors for crop-raiding elephant in Northern Tanzania: Integration of Bayesian Expert System and Network Simulator. Ambio 43(2):149–161
Clerici N, Vogt P (2013) Ranking European regions as providers of structural riparian corridors;for conservation and management purposes. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 21(1):477–483
Crist M, Wilmer BO, Aplet G (2005) Assessing the value of roadless areas in a conservation reserve strategy: Biodiversity and landscape connectivity in the northern Rockies. J Appl Ecol 42(1):181–191
Cushman SA, Mcrae B, Adriaensen F, Beier P, Shirley M, Zeller K (2013) Biological corridors and connectivity. In: Macdonald DW, Willis KJ (eds) Key topics in conservation biology. Hoboken, Wiley
Dutta T, Sharma S, McRae B, Roy P, DeFries R (2016) Connecting the dots: mapping habitat connectivity for tigers in central India. Reg Environ Change 16(1):53–67
Epps CW, Mutayoba BM, Gwin L, Brashares JS (2011) An empirical evaluation of the African elephant as a focal species for connectivity planning in East Africa. Divers Distrib 17(4):603–612
Estrada-Carmona N, Martínez-Salinas A, Declerck FAJ, Vílchez-Mendoza S, Garbach K (2019) Managing the farmscape for connectivity increases conservation value for tropical bird species with different forest-dependencies. J Environ Manag 250:109504
Fagan W, Cantrell R, Cosner C (1999) How habitat edges change species interaction. Am Nat 153(2):165–182
Fernando P (2000) Elephants in Sri Lanka: Past, present and future. Loris 22:38–44
Ferreras P (2001) Landscape structure and asymmetrical inter-patch connectivity in a metapopulation of the endangered Iberian lynx. Biol Cons 99(1):125–136
Finn J (1995) Greenway planning: developing a landscape ecological network approach. Landsc Urban Plann 33(1–3):179–193
Foley JA, Ruth D, Asner GP, Barford C, Bonan G, Carpenter SR, Chapin FS, Coe MT, Daily GC, Gibbs HK, Helkowski JH, Holloway T, Howard EA, Kucharik CJ, Monfrede C, Patz JA, Prentice IC, Ramankutty N, Snyder PK (2005) Global consequences of land use. Science 309(5734):570–574
Foltête JC, Berthier K, Cosson JF (2008) Cost distance defined by a topological function of landscape. Ecol Model 210(1):104–114
Gagnon JB, Wemmer C, Kelly DS, Songer MA, Selig ER (2010) Fragmentation of Asia's remaining wildlands: implications for Asian elephant conservation. Anim Conserv 6(4):347–359
García-Feced C, Saura S, Elena-Rosselló R (2011) Improving landscape connectivity in forest districts: a two-stage process for prioritizing agricultural patches for reforestation. For Ecol Manage 261(1):154–161
Harbaugh D, Wagner W, Allan G, Zimmer E (2009) The Hawaiian Archipelago is a stepping stone for dispersal in the Pacific: an example from the plant genus Melicope (Rutaceae). J Biogeogr 36(2):230–241
Hu B, Wang D, Wang Z, Wang F, Liu J, Sun Z, Chen J (2018) Development and optimization of the ecological network in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei metropolitan region. Acta Ecol Sin 38(12):4383–4392
Huck M, Jedrzejewski W, Borowik T, Cielma MM, Schmidt K, Jedrzejewska B, Nowak S, Myslajek RW (2010) Habitat suitability, corridors and dispersal barriers for large carnivores in Poland. Acta Theriol 55(2):177–192
Kassa H, Dondeyne S, Poesen J, Frankl A, Nyssen J (2017) Impact of deforestation on soil fertility, soil carbon and nitrogen stocks: the case of the Gacheb catchment in the White Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Agr Ecosyst Environ 247:273–282
Kavanagh P, Newlands N, Christensen V, Pauly D (2004) Automated parameter optimization for Ecopath ecosystem models. Ecol Model 172(2):141–149
Keitt T, Urban D, Milne B (1997) Detecting critical scales in fragmented landscapes. Conserv Ecol 1(2006):3213–3217
Lechner AM, Doerr V, Harris RMB, Doerr E, Lefroy EC (2015) A framework for incorporating fine-scale dispersal behaviour into biodiversity conservation planning. Landsc Urban Plann 141:11–23
Li W, Yu Y, Liu P, Tang R, Dai Y, Li L, Zhang L (2019) Identifying climate refugia and its potential impact on small population of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in China. Global Ecol Conserv 19:e00664
Liang H, Huang Y, Lin S, Zhao K, Zou Y, Yu X, Yang L, Xu W, Ming Z, Zhou Z (2016) Study on plant diversity of mountain areas of Yangmeikeng and Chiao, Shenzhen China. Am J Plant Sci 7(17):2527–2552
Lin L, Zhang L, Feng L, Guo X, Zhao J, Dao J (2008) A preliminary study on designing ecological corridors in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve with 3S techniques. Front Biol China 3(1):101–105
Linehan J, Gross M, Finn J (1995) Greenway planning: developing a landscape ecological network approach. Landsc Urban Plann 33(1):179–193
Liu H, Zhou Y, Li J, Song C, Cao X (2002) Distribution of phophatase hydrolysable phosphorus and UV-sensitive phosphorus compounds and a relationship between them in Donghu Lake. J Wuhan Univ (Nat Sci Ed) 48(6):705–708
Liu S, Dong Y, Cheng F, Zhang Y, Hou X, Dong S, Coxixo A (2017a) Effects of road network on Asian elephant habitat and connectivity between the nature reserves in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. J Nat Conserv 38:11–20
Liu S, Yin Y, Cheng F, Hou X, Dong S, Wu X (2017b) Spatio-temporal variations of conservation hotspots based on ecosystem services in Xishuangbanna Southwest China. PLoS ONE 12(12):e0189368
Liu S, Yin Y, Li J, Cheng F, Dong S, Zhang Y (2018) Using cross-scale landscape connectivity indices to identify key habitat resource patches for Asian elephants in Xishuangbanna, China. Landsc Urban Plann 171:80–87
Liu X, Li J (2008) Scientific solutions for the functional zoning of nature reserves in China. Ecol Model 215(1):237–246
Loveridge A, Hemson G, Davidson Z, Macdonald D (2010) African lions on the edge: Reserve boundaries as “attractive sinks”. Biol Conserv Wild Felids 283:283–304
Mcrae BH (2006) Isolation by resistance. Evolution 60(8):1551–1561
Mcrae BH, Beier P (2007) Circuit theory predicts gene flow in plant and animal populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(50):19885–19890
Mcrae BH, Dickson BG, Keitt TH, Shah VB (2008) Using circuit theory to model connectivity in ecology, evolution, and conservation. Ecology 89(10):2712–2724
Moilanen A, Franco AM, Early RI, Fox R, Wintle B, Thomas CD (2005) Prioritizing multiple-use landscapes for conservation: methods for large multi-species planning problems. Proc Biol Sci 272(1575):1885–1891
Nikolakaki P (2004) A GIS site-selection process for habitat creation: estimating connectivity of habitat patches. Landsc Urban Plann 68(1):77–94
Noss RF (2010) Corridors in real landscapes: a reply to Simberloff and Cox. Conserv Biol 1(2):159–164
Pascual-Hortal L, Saura S (2006) Comparison and development of new graph-based landscape connectivity indices: towards the priorization of habitat patches and corridors for conservation. Landsc Ecol 21(7):959–967
Pascual-Hortal L, Saura S (2007) Impact of spatial scale on the identification of critical habitat patches for the maintenance of landscape connectivity. Landsc Urban Plann 83(2):176–186
Paton P (1994) The effect of edge on avian nest success: how strong is the evidence? Conserv Biol 8(1):17–26
Pelletier D, Clark M, Anderson MG, Rayfield B, Wulder MA, Cardille JA (2014) Applying circuit theory for corridor expansion and management at regional scales: tiling, pinch points, and omnidirectional connectivity. PLoS ONE 9(1):e84135
Peng J, Wang A, Luo L, Liu Y, Li H, Hu Y, Meersmans J, Wu J (2019) Spatial identification of conservation priority areas for urban ecological land: an approach based on water ecosystem services. Land Degrad Dev 30(6):683–694
Peng J, Yang Y, Liu Y, Hu Y, Du Y, Meersmans J, Qiu S (2018) Linking ecosystem services and circuit theory to identify ecological security patterns. Sci Total Environ 644:781–790
Poor EE, Loucks C, Jakes A, Urban DL (2012) Comparing habitat suitability and connectivity modeling methods for conserving pronghorn migrations. PLoS ONE 7(11):e49390
Riitters KH, Vogt P, Soille P, Kozak J, Estreguil C (2007) Neutral model analysis of landscape patterns from mathematical morphology. Landsc Ecol 22(7):1033–1043
Sampson C, Leimgruber P, Tonkyn D, Pastorini J, Janaka HK, Sotherden E, Fernando P (2018) Effects of illegal grazing and invasive Lantana camara on Asian elephant habitat use. Biol Cons 220:50–59
Saunders D, Hobbs R, Margules C (1991) Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Conserv Biol 5(1):18–32
Saura S, Bodin Ö, Fortin MJ, Frair J (2014) Stepping stones are crucial for species' long-distance dispersal and range expansion through habitat networks. J Appl Ecol 51(1):171–182
Saura S, Pascual-Hortal L (2007) A new habitat availability index to integrate connectivity in landscape conservation planning: Comparison with existing indices and application to a case study. Landsc Urban Plann 83(2):91–103
Saura S, Torné J (2009) Conefor Sensinode 2.2: a software package for quantifying the importance of habitat patches for landscape connectivity. Environ Modell Softw 24(1):135–139
Saura S, Vogt P, Velázquez J, Hernando A, Tejera R (2011) Key structural forest connectors can be identified by combining landscape spatial pattern and network analyses. For Ecol Manage 262(2):150–160
Shah VB, Mcrae BH (2008) Circuitscape: a tool for landscape ecology. In: Proceedings of the 7th Python in Science Conference. SciPy, Pasadena, pp. 62–65
Soille P, Vogt P (2009) Morphological segmentation of binary patterns. Pattern Recogn Lett 30(4):456–459
Speziale KL, Lambertucci SA, Olsson O (2008) Disturbance from roads negatively affects Andean condor habitat use. Biol Cons 141(7):1765–1772
Steinmetz R, Chutipong W, Seuaturien N (2010) Collaborating to conserve large mammals in Southeast Asia. Conserv Biol 20(5):1391–1401
Urban D, Keitt T (2001) Landscape connectivity: a graph-theoretic perspective. Ecology 82(5):1205–1218
Velázquez J, Gutiérrez J, Hernando A, García-Abril A (2017) Evaluating landscape connectivity in fragmented habitats: Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) in northern Spain. For Ecol Manage 389:59–67
Verbeylen G, Bruyn LD, Adriaensen F, Matthysen E (2003) Does matrix resistance influence Red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris L. 1758) distribution in an urban landscape? Landsc Ecol 18(8):791–805
Vogt P, Ferrari JR, Lookingbill TR, Gardner RH, Riitters KH, Ostapowicz K (2009) Mapping functional connectivity. Ecol Ind 9(1):64–71
Vogt P, Riitters KH, Iwanowski M, Estreguil C, Kozak J, Soille P (2007) Mapping landscape corridors. Ecol Ind 7(2):481–488
Walker R, Craighead F (1997) Analyzing wildlife movement corridors in Montana using GIS. ESRI User Conference.
Wang YH, Yang KC, Bridgman CL, Lin LK (2008) Habitat suitability modelling to correlate gene flow with landscape connectivity. Landsc Ecol 23(8):989–1000
Wickham JD, Riitters KH, Wade TG, Vogt P (2010) A national assessment of green infrastructure and change for the conterminous United States using morphological image processing. Landsc Urban Plann 94(3–4):186–195
Wu J, Zhang L, Jian P, Feng Z, Liu H, Hao S (2013) The integrated recognition of the source area of the urban ecological security pattern in Shenzhen. Acta Ecol Sin 33(13):4125–4133
Yu K, Qiao Q, Li D, Yuan H, Wang S (2009) Ecological land use in three towns of eastern Beijing: a case study based on landscape security pattern analysis. J Appl Ecol 20(8):1932–1939
Zeller KA, Whiteley AR (2012) Estimating landscape resistance to movement: a review. Landsc Ecol 27(6):777–797
Zhang L, Wang N, Wang Y, Ma L (2003) A preliminary study on the habitat and behaviors of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Simao, Yunnan China. Acta Theriol Sin 23(3):185–192
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (No. 2019QZKK0405) and the National Natural Sciences Foundation of China (No. 41571173) and the National Key Research and Development Project (No. 2016YFC0502103).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
An, Y., Liu, S., Sun, Y. et al. Construction and optimization of an ecological network based on morphological spatial pattern analysis and circuit theory. Landscape Ecol 36, 2059–2076 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01027-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01027-3