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The Mediating Role of Different Types of Parental Support in the Social Disparity of Hope in Young Adulthood

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Abstract

Research has shown hope to be associated with a person’s well-being, but how it is affected by family factors is unclear. This study investigates whether family socio-economic status (SES) affects young adults’ hope, and to what extent and how different types of parental support mediate this social disparity. The data is collected from a sample of Hong Kong youth (N = 760; 54.6% girls) which participated in a 7-year longitudinal study during age 15–22. The results from multiple regression models indicate that family SES significantly predicts hope. However, cultural and academic communication and career encouragement from parents in early years, and current parental emotional support fully mediate the relationship between family SES and hope, with parental emotional support being the strongest mediator. Implications for hope theory, practices for nurturing hope and further research are discussed to suggest possible actions.

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the support by the General Research Fund from the Research Grants Council in Hong Kong (Project Number: 14626416 & 14620919). Opinions expressed in this paper are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect those of the granting agency.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Educational Administration and Policy, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

    Esther Sui-chu Ho

  2. Department of Social Sciences, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong

    Stephen Wing-kai Chiu

  3. Hong Kong Centre for International Student Assessment, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

    Kwok-wing Sum, Charis Wing-shan Cheung & Thomas Sze-kit Lee

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  1. Esther Sui-chu Ho
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Contributions

E.H. is the principal investigator of the study and she conceived of the study, led the study design and oversaw the preparation and completion of the manuscript; S.C. is the co-investigator of the study and he contributed to the theoretical arguments of the manuscript; K.S. participated in the literature review and data collection and helped to draft the manuscript; C.C. participated in the literature review and helped to draft the manuscript; T.L. supported the statistical analysis and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Sharing and Declaration

This manuscript’s data will not be deposited.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Esther Sui-chu Ho.

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Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study were approved by the Survey and Behavioral Research Ethics Committee, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and complied with its ethical standards.

Informed Consent

All participating youth and their parents/guardians gave informed consent prior to their participation in the study and adequate steps were taken to protect participants’ confidentiality.

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Appendices

Appendix 1 Factor loadings, eigenvalues, and variance explained of the Hope Scale after varimax rotation

Factor loadings

1. I can think of many ways to get out of a jam.

0.830

2. I energetically pursue my goals.

0.830

3. There are lots of ways around any problem.

0.810

4. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me.

0.844

5. Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem.

0.804

6. My past experiences have prepared me well for my future.

0.774

7. I’ve been pretty successful in life.

0.744

8. I meet the goals that I set for myself.

0.746

Eigenvalue

5.101

Variance explained (%)

63.764

  1. Notes: Each item is scored on a 1 to 6 scale (1 = Not at all like me, 2 = Not like me, 3 = Not much like me, 4 = Somewhat like me, 5 = Like me, 6 = Very much like me)

Appendix 2 Factor loadings, eigenvalues, and variance explained of the parental involvement scale after varimax rotation

 

Social Communication (Factor 1)

Academic and Cultural Communication (Factor 2)

Factor loadings

1. Discuss how well my child is doing at school

0.639

0.453

2. Have dinner with my child

0.752

−0.114

3. Spend time just talking to my child

0.798

0.186

4. Help my child with his/her homework

−0.036

0.730

5. Discuss how my child is performing in class

0.497

0.580

6. Discuss current affairs with my child

0.533

0.560

7. Discuss books, films or television programs with my child

0.490

0.578

8. Go to bookstore or library with my child

0.115

0.770

9. Listen to music with my child

0.178

0.707

Eigenvalues

1.219

4.071

Variance explained (%)

13.544

45.228

  1. Notes: Each item is scored on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Never or hardly ever, 2 = Once or twice a year, 3 = Once or twice a month, 4 = Once or twice a week, 5 = Every day or almost every day). Item 1 to 5 are adapted from PISA 2012 Technical Report, Table 16.89 (OECD, 2014). Item 6 to 8 are adapted from PISA 2009 Technical Report, Table 16.55 (OECD, 2012). The highest factor loadings on each factor are highlighted in bold

Appendix 3 Factor loadings, eigenvalues, and variance explained of the perceived career-related parental support scale after varimax rotation

 

Perceived Career Guidance (Factor 1)

Perceived Career Encouragement (Factor 2)

Factor loadings

1. My parents talk to me when I am worried about my future career.

0.678

0.494

2. My parents tell me what kind of job they would like me to have.

0.817

−0.273

3. My parents provide me with career information.

0.746

0.317

4. My parents discuss with me on what kind of job I wish to have in the future.

0.716

0.483

5. My parents encourage me to pursue any careers that I like.

0.132

0.888

6. My parents agree with my views when I let them know my interest in certain kind of job.

0.126

0.875

Eigenvalues

3.138

1.296

Variance explained (%)

52.308

21.597

  1. Notes: Each item is scored on a 1 to 4 scale (1 = Never, 2 = = Seldom, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often). Item 1 and 2 are adapted from CRPSS. Item 3 to 6 are adapted from PCBC. The highest factor loadings on each factor are highlighted in bold

Appendix 4 Factor loadings, eigenvalues, and variance explained of the parental emotional support scale after varimax rotation

Factor loadings

1. My parents are interested in my studies or work.

0.730

2. My parents support my efforts and achievements in study or work.

0.879

3. My parents support me when I am facing difficulties.

0.866

4. My parents encourage me to be confident.

0.844

Eigenvalue

2.768

Variance explained (%)

69.193

  1. Notes: Each item is scored on a 1 to 4 scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly agree)

Appendix 5 Regression analyses testing for moderation effects of parental involvement, parental career-related and emotional support on the relationship between family SES and young adults’ hope

Predictors

Hope

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Model 5

β

β

β

β

β

Family SES

0.082

0.075

0.083

0.073

0.076

Female (vs. Male)

−0.066

−0.073

−0.069

−0.069

−0.074

1st generation immigrant (vs. Native)

0.067

0.063

0.069

0.070

0.067

2nd generation immigrant (vs. Native)

0.106*

0.107*

0.111*

0.108*

0.113*

Parental involvement (academic & cultural communication)

0.136**

0.139**

0.136**

0.140**

0.141**

Parental involvement (social communication)

0.030

0.036

0.032

0.034

0.039

Parental career-related support (career guidance)

−0.062

−0.062

−0.055

−0.061

−0.058

Parental career-related support (career encouragement)

0.115*

0.114*

0.118*

0.117*

0.111

Parental emotional support

0.204***

0.211***

0.208**

0.224***

0.227***

Interaction: SES x Parental involvement (academic & cultural communication)

 

0.020

  

0.011

Interaction: SES x Parental involvement (social communication)

 

0.051

  

0.033

Interaction: SES x Parental career-related support (career guidance)

  

0.067

 

0.047

Interaction: SES x Parental career-related support (career encouragement)

  

0.003

 

−0.026

Interaction: SES x Parental emotional support

   

0.058

0.053

R 2

0.120***

0.123

0.125

0.123

0.128

ΔR2

 

0.003

0.004

0.003

0.007

  1. Notes: Native: local young adults who have at least one parent born in Hong Kong. 1st generation immigrant: young adults born outside Hong Kong and whose parent(s) were also born in another country. 2nd generation immigrant: young adults born in Hong Kong but whose parents(s) were born in another country
  2. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

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Sui-chu Ho, E., Chiu, S.Wk., Sum, Kw. et al. The Mediating Role of Different Types of Parental Support in the Social Disparity of Hope in Young Adulthood. J Youth Adolescence 50, 1437–1449 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01409-z

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