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Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Health Risk Problems: The Role of School Engagement

  • Empirical Research
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Abstract

Maternal depressive symptoms disrupt positive youth development, though the pervasiveness of this disruption is understudied. Additionally, it remains unknown whether prosocial factors such as adolescent school engagement may buffer against this risk factor. Using multigenerational, longitudinal data spanning ten years from an ethnically diverse sample of mother-child dyads (66% Black, 17% Hispanic, and 17% White), this study examines the effect of maternal depressive symptoms in late childhood (ages 8–13) on the development and progression of offspring depressive symptoms, substance use, and delinquent behavior during adolescence (ages 14–17). Further, the study examines whether school engagement moderates the ill effects of maternal depressive symptoms. Mother-son (n = 212) and mother-daughter (n = 215) dyads are compared to assess for similarities and differences between male and female offspring. The results indicate that offspring of mothers with greater maternal depressive symptoms are more likely to display higher levels of depressive symptoms, substance use, and delinquency throughout adolescence, although important nuances emerge across outcome and child sex. Additionally, while school engagement itself is associated with reduced depressive symptoms, substance use and delinquency among adolescents, it is not profound enough to offset the risk posed by maternal depressive symptoms. The findings of this study reinforce the pervasive, negative, intergenerational impact of maternal depressive symptoms and has implications for prevention and intervention efforts for adolescent health risk problems.

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Notes

  1. Unfortunately, limited sample sizes across race/ethnicity preclude the ability to examine if race/ethnicity moderates the proposed relationships.

  2. Only 476 mother-child dyads met the criteria for having a G3 complete at least one interview between the ages of 14 and 17 (63 were not yet 14 years of age at the last data collection). Nine mother-child dyads were removed from the sample because there was no information on maternal depressive symptoms between the ages of eight and 13, and an additional 27 mother-child dyads were removed because there was not at least three years of information on maternal depressive symptoms. The remaining 13 mother-child dyads were removed as a result of listwise deletion.

  3. One item from the original scale (“I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family and friends”) was not administered in this sample due to confusion reported by subjects in a pretest.

  4. Individual growth curves of maternal depressive symptoms were created and the intercept and slope of the growth curves (a linear slope best represented maternal growth curves) were used as predictors of each adolescent behavior. Given that only the intercept (i.e., level) was a significant predictor of adolescent behavior and not the slope (i.e., growth) of maternal depressive symptoms, we opted to present the results for the average of maternal depressive symptoms in late childhood for ease in interpretation. The effects of the intercept of maternal depressive symptoms and the average level of maternal depressive symptoms are the same in direction and significance.

  5. Due to differences in the CES-D (Radloff, 1977), the CES-D Adolescent (Radloff, 1977), and the principal investigators preferences, the reference period and response options for depressive symptoms vary between maternal measures of depressive symptoms and child measures of depressive symptoms.

  6. Given that maternal age at birth of G3 was highly correlated with G3’s year of birth, both covariates were not included in the models simultaneously. Nonetheless, all models were estimated with each covariate, respectively - maternal age at G3 birth and G3 birth year—and the results were the same in direction and significance.

  7. For simplicity, we did not allow slopes to vary across individuals.

  8. Tests for significant difference in means were calculated using the following formula: \(t = \frac{{\left( { {x_1} } \right. - {\left. {x_2} \right)} }}{{\sqrt {\frac{{s_1^2}}{{n_1}} + \frac{{s_2^2}}{{n_2}}} }}\)

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Acknowledgements

We thank Adrienne Freeman-Gallant, PhD. and Rebekah Chu, Ph.D. for their assistance in compiling, managing, and preparing the data for the analysis.

Funding

Support for the Rochester Youth Development Study has been provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA020195, R01DA005512), the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (86-JN-CX-0007, 96-MU-FX-0014, 2004-MU-FX-0062), the National Science Foundation (SBR-9123299), and the National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH56486, R01MH63386). Technical assistance for this project was also provided by an NICHD grant (R24HD044943) to The Center for Social and Demographic Analysis at the University at Albany. Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the funding agencies.

Authors’ Contributions

CF conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, and drafted the manuscript; MBA conceived of the study, participated in the study design and coordination, performed the measurement and statistical analysis, and helped draft the manuscript; KH conceived of the study, participated in its design and interpretation of the data, and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Sharing Declaration

The data for this study are not currently available to the public, but provisions to deposit the Rochester Intergenerational Study data at the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research are currently underway.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, 1867 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA

    Celia J. Fulco & Kimberly L. Henry

  2. The University of Texas at San Antonio, 501W. Cesar Chavez Blvd, San Antonio, TX, 78207, USA

    Megan Bears Augustyn

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  1. Celia J. Fulco
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Correspondence to Celia J. Fulco.

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Appendices

Appendix A. Individual Items in Scales

Maternal Depressive Symptoms (α = 0.91–.94)

In the past two weeks, how often did you?

Responses: 0 (Never), 1 (Seldom), 2 (Sometimes), 3 (Often), 4 (Always)

1. Feel bothered by things that don’t usually bother you?

2. Not feel like eating or have a poor appetite?

3. Feel you had trouble keeping your mind on what you were doing?

4. Feel depressed?

5. Feel that everything you did was an effort, or that everything was difficult for you to do?

6. Feel hopeful for the future? (reverse coded)

7. Feel that you were just as good as other people? (reverse coded)

8. Think your life has been a failure?

9. Feel fearful?

10. Sleep restlessly?

11. Feel happy? (reverse coded)

12. Feel that you talked less than usual?

13. Feel lonely?

14. Feel that people were unfriendly?

15. Feel you enjoyed life? (reverse coded)

16. Have crying spells?

17. Feel sad?

18. Feel people disliked you?

19. Feel that you could not “get going”?

Adolescent Delinquency

Since the date of the last interview, have you? No/Yes.

If yes, how many times?

1. Run away from home in the past year?

2. Skipped classes without an excuse in the past year?

3. Lied about your age to get into some place or to buy something?

4. Hitchhiked a ride with a stranger?

5. Carried a hidden weapon?

6. Been loud or rowdy in a public place where somebody complained and you got in trouble?

7. Begged for money or things from strangers?

8. Been drunk in a public place?

9. Damage, destroyed or marked up somebody else’s property on purpose?

10. Set fire on purpose or tried to set fire to a house, building or car?

11. Avoided paying for things, like a movie, taking bus rides, using a computer or anything else?

12. Gone into or tried to go into a building to steal or damage something?

13. Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth $5 or less?

14. Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth between $5 and $50?

15. Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things between $50 and $100?

16. Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things over $100?

17. Tried to buy or sell things that were stolen?

18. Take a car or motorcycle for a ride without the owner’s permission?

19. Stolen or tried to steal a car or motor vehicle?

20. Forged a check or used fake money to pay for something?

21. Used or tried to use a credit card, bank card, or automatic teller card without permission?

22. Attacked someone with a weapon or with the idea of seriously hurting or killing them?

23. Hit someone with the idea of hurting them, other than what you already mentioned?

24. Been involved in a gang or posse fight?

25. Thrown objects such as rocks or bottles at people, other than what you already mentioned?

26. Used a weapon or force to make someone give you money?

27. Made obscene phone calls?

28. Been paid for having sexual relations with someone?

29. Physically hurt or threatened to hurt someone to get them to have sex with you?

30. Sold marijuana, weed or reefer?

31. Sold hard drugs such as crack, heroin, cocaine, LSD or acid?

Adolescent Depressive Symptoms (α = 0.88–.90)

Since your last interview, how often did you? 0) Never, 1) Almost never, 2) Sometimes, 3) Often

1. Feel you had trouble keeping your mind on what you were doing?

2. Feel depressed or very sad?

3. Feel hopeful about the future? (reverse-coded)

4. Feel bothered by things that don’t usually bother you?

5. Not feel like eating because you felt upset about something?

6. Feel that everything you did was an effort, or that everything was difficult for you to do?

7. Feel scared or afraid?

8. Toss and turn because you couldn’t sleep?

9. Feel that you talked less than usual?

10. Feel nervous or stressed?

11. Feel lonely?

12. Feel people disliked you?

13. Feel you enjoyed life? (reverse-coded)

School Engagement (α = 0.84)

How much do you agree or disagree with these statements? 1) Strongly disagree, 2) Disagree, 3) Agree, 4) Strongly Agree

1. You like school a lot

2. School is boring to you (reverse-coded)

3. You do poorly at school (reverse-coded)

4. You don’t really belong at school (reverse-coded)

5. Homework is a waste of time (reverse-coded)

6. You try hard at school

7. You usually finish your homework

8. Getting good grades is important to you

9. Sometimes you do extra work to improve your grades

How important is it to you? 1) Not important at all, 2) Not very important, 3) Important, 4) Very important

1. To graduate from high school?

2. To go to college?

3. To graduate from college?

What are your grades in? 0) Failing, 1) Below average, 2) Average, 3) Above average

1. English or language arts?

2. History or social studies?

3. Arithmetic or math?

4. Science?

Peer Support (α = 0.90)

If you needed to, how likely would you be to? 1) Very unlikely, 2) Unlikely, 3) Likely, 4) Very likely

1. Talk to friends about personal or private things?

2. Ask friends for advice when you need to make an important decision?

3. Borrow money from a friend?

4. Talk to friends about problems you are having with family members?

5. Talk to friends about trouble you are having at school?

6. Go to friends for help in an emergency?

7. How likely friends are to care about you no matter what is happening in your life?

Peer Delinquency

Since your last interview, how many of these friends? 1) None of them, 2) A few of them (1 or 2), 3) Some of them, 4) Most of them

1. Used money or force to get money or things from people?

2. Attacked someone with a weapon or with the idea of seriously hurting them?

3. Hit someone with the idea of hurting them?

4. Stole something worth more than $100?

5. Stole something worth more than $5 but less than $50?

6. Damaged or destroyed someone else’s property?

7. Took a car or motorcycle for a ride or drive without the owner’s permission?

8. Used marijuana, weed or reefer?

9. Used ecstasy, “X”, “E”, or other club drugs?

10. Used hard drugs such as crack, heroin, cocaine, LSD or acid?

11. Drank beer, wine or liquor?

Appendix B. Correlation Matrix for Mother-Son Dyads (N*T = 745, N = 212)

 

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1

1.00

             

2

0.10**

1.00

            

3

0.12**

0.39**

1.00

           

4

0.15**

0.15**

0.07*

1.00

          

5

−0.25**

−0.22**

−0.19**

−0.09*

1.00

         

6

0.00

0.12**

0.02

0.01

0.18**

1.00

        

7

0.22**

0.49**

0.37**

0.08

−0.31**

0.04

1.00

       

8

0.05

−0.06

−0.03

−0.09

−0.01

0.08*

−0.03

1.00

      

9

0.05

0.01

−0.02

−0.26**

−0.07

0.06

0.04

−0.09*

1.00

     

10

0.02

0.28**

0.14

−0.03

−0.10**

0.28**

0.16**

−0.04

−0.00

1.00

    

11

−0.06

−0.05

−0.06

−0.11**

0.07*

0.04

−0.01

−0.20**

0.03

0.01

1.00

   

12

0.08*

0.03

0.08*

0.11**

−0.00

−0.01

0.04

0.01

0.02

−0.01

−0.64**

1.00

  

13

−0.08*

−0.04

−0.07*

−0.09*

0.12**

0.09*

−0.06

0.18**

−0.04

−0.06

−0.17**

−0.04

1.00

 

14

−0.05

−0.10*

−0.02

−0.01

0.10**

−0.01

−0.06

−0.00

0.01

−0.01

0.10

0.06

−0.18**

1.00

*p < .05, **p< .01

1. Adolescent depressive symptoms (Avg. 14–17)

8. Live with both parents (Avg.14–17)

2. Adolescent substance use (Avg. 14–17)

9. Financial strain (Avg.14–17)

3. Adolescent delinquency (Avg.14–17)

10. Age

4. Maternal depressive symptoms (Avg. 8–13)

11. Black

5. School engagement (Avg.14–17)

12. Hispanic

6. Peer support (Avg.14–17)

13. G3 Birth year

7. Peer delinquency (Avg.14–17)

14. Neighborhood arrest rate

Appendix C. Correlation Matrix For Mother-Daughter Dyads (N*T = 759, N = 215)

 

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1

1.00

             

2

0.26**

1.00

            

3

0.16**

0.44**

1.00

           

4

0.30**

0.11**

0.08*

1.00

          

5

−0.32**

−0.33**

−0.30**

−0.11**

1.00

         

6

−0.06

0.07*

−0.01

0.00

0.18**

1.00

        

7

0.28**

0.56**

0.40**

0.07*

−0.28**

0.06

1.00

       

8

−0.06

0.00

−0.01

−0.06

0.03

−0.03

−0.04

1.00

      

9

0.19**

0.12**

0.04

0.29**

−0.16**

−0.05

0.06

−0.03

1.00

     

10

0.02

0.23**

0.08*

0.02

0.01

0.26**

0.10**

−0.03

0.09*

1.00

    

11

−0.07*

−0.14**

−0.03

−0.12**

0.16**

0.01

−0.02

−0.11**

−0.13**

0.01

1.00

   

12

0.03

−0.01

−0.06

0.19**

−0.08*

−0.01

−0.02

−0.03

0.08*

−0.01

−0.63**

1.00

  

13

−0.10**

−0.01

−0.03

−0.05

0.07*

−0.01

0.01

0.20**

0.00

−0.09*

−0.21**

0.06

1.00

 

14

−0.08*

−0.05

0.03

0.00

0.06

−0.11**

−0.07*

−0.04

−0.03

0.03

0.19**

0.01

−0.09*

1.00

*p< .05, **p< .01

1. Adolescent depressive symptoms (Avg. 14–17)

8. Live with both parents (Avg.14–17)

2. Adolescent substance use (Avg. 14–17)

9. Financial strain (Avg.14–17)

3. Adolescent delinquency (Avg.14–17)

10. Age

4. Maternal depressive symptoms (Avg. 8–13)

11. Black

5. School engagement (Avg.14–17)

12. Hispanic

6. Peer support (Avg.14–17)

13. G3 Birth year

7. Peer delinquency (Avg.14–17)

14. Neighborhood arrest rate

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Fulco, C.J., Bears Augustyn, M. & Henry, K.L. Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Health Risk Problems: The Role of School Engagement. J Youth Adolescence 49, 102–118 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01046-7

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