Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on the Relationships between Emotional Separation, Parental Trust, and Identity in Adolescents

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Emotional separation and parental trust in parent–adolescent relationships are important factors for adolescent identity formation. However, prior research findings on emotional separation are inconsistent. This study aimed to conduct a more rigorous examination of the associations of emotional separation and parental trust with identity synthesis, confusion, and consolidation by applying a bi-factor model to identity, using adolescent samples from Lithuania (N = 610; 53.9% female; M age  = 14.92), Italy (N = 411; 57.4% female; M age  = 15.03), and Japan (N = 759; 43.7% female; M age  = 14.13). Structural equation modeling revealed that emotional separation and parental trust were consistently associated with identity consolidation across the three countries, rather than associated with identity synthesis and identity confusion. Furthermore, the patterns of associations of emotional separation and parental trust with identity synthesis and identity confusion differed across the three nations. Overall, this study provides a better understanding of the role of emotional separation and parental trust in adolescent identity formation by suggesting the importance of the identity consolidation in the association between parent–child relationships and identity formation across three countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2009). AMOS18 user’s guide. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02202939.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Årseth, A. K., Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2009). Meta-analytic studies of identity status and the relational issues of attachment and intimacy. Identity, 9, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283480802579532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, S. L. (2011). International perspectives on identity development. Child & Youth Care Forum, 40, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-010-9131-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beyers, W., & Goossens, L. (1999). Emotional autonomy, psychosocial adjustment and parenting: interactions, moderating and mediating effects. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 753–769. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1999.0268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beyers, W., Goossens, L., Van Calster, B., & Duriez, B. (2005). An alternative substantive factor structure of the emotional autonomy scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.21.3.147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blos, P. (1967). The second individuation process of adolescence. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 22, 162–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: parent–child attachment and healthy human development. New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F., Hayes, A., Carver, C. S., Laurenceau, J.-P., & Zhang, Z. (2012). Modeling general and specific variance in multifaceted constructs: a comparison of the bifactor model to other approaches. Journal of Personality, 80, 219–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00739.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Branje, S., Rubini, M., Koot, H. M., & Meeus, W. (2017). Identity processes and parent–child and sibling relationships in adolescence: a five–wave multi–informant longitudinal study. Child Development, 88, 210–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Cieciuch, J., Gao, C. H., Klimstra, T., Lin, C. L., & Matos, P. M., et al. (2015). National and gender measurement invariance of the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS): a ten-nation study. Assessment, 22, 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115584969.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., & Meeus, W. (2014). “Family comes first!” Relationships with family and friends in Italian emerging adults. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 1463–1473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.02.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Rabaglietti, E., & Sica, L. S. (2012). Personal identity in Italy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 138, 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., & Meeus, W. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups: development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.09.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Schwartz, S. J., Fermani, A., & Meeus, W. (2010). The Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 172–186. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrov, D. M. (2010). Testing for factorial invariance in the context of construct validation. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 43, 121–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748175610373459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrova, R., Hatano, K., Sugimura, K., & Ferrer-Wreder, L. (in press). The factorial validity and equivalence of identity as measured by the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory in adolescent samples from the United States and Japan. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000456.

  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrer-Wreder, L., Sugimura, K., Trost, K., Poyrazli, S., Klingstedt, M.-L., & Thomas, S. (2015). The intersection of culture, health, and risk behaviors in emerging and young adults. In L. A. Jensen (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human development and culture: an interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 502–518). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

  • Hatano, K., & Sugimura, K. (2017). Is adolescence a period of identity formation for all youth? Insights from a four-wave longitudinal study of identity dynamics in Japan. Developmental Psychology, 53, 2113–2126. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatano, K., Sugimura, K., Nakama, R., Mizokami, S., & Tsuzuki, M. (2014). Erikson shinri shakai teki dankai mokuroku (dai 5 dankai) 12 koumoku ban no sakusei [Examining the reliability and validity of a Japanese version of the 12-item Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (the 5th stage)]. Shinrigaku Kenkyu : The Japanese Journal of Psychology, 85, 482–487. https://doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.8513319.

  • Hatano, K., Sugimura, K., & Schwartz, S. J. (2017). Longitudinal links between identity consolidation and psychosocial problems in adolescence: Using bi-factor latent change and cross-lagged effect models. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Available online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0785-2.

  • Hofstede, G, Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaniušonytė, G., Malinauskienė, O., & Truskauskaitė-Kunevičienė, I. (2014). Tėvų-vaikų santykiai ir pozityvi jaunimo raida [Child-parent relationships and positive youth development components]. Social Work, 13, 98–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. (4th ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J. (1998). Adolescence as a second separation-individuation process: critical review of an object relations approach. In E. Skoe, & A. von der Lippe (Eds.), Personality development in adolescence (pp. 172–192). New York, NY: Routledge.

  • Kroger, J., & Marcia, J. E. (2011). The identity statuses: origins, meanings, and interpretations. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V.L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vols 1 and 2, pp. 31–53). New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media.

  • Lamborn, S. D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Emotional autonomy redux: revisiting Ryan and Lynch. Child Development, 64, 483–499. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lo Coco, A., & Pace, U. (2009). L’autonomia emotiva in adolescenza [Emotional autonomy in adolescence]. Bologna: Il Mulino.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luyckx, K., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Beyers, W. (2006). Unpacking commitment and exploration: preliminary validation of an integrative model of late adolescent identity formation. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 361–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.03.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (2002). Identity and psychosocial development in adulthood. Identity, 2, 7–28. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532706XID0201_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: a cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McElhaney, K. B., Allen, J. P., Stephenson, J. C. & Hare, A. L. (2009). Attachment and autonomy during adolescence. In R. M. Lerner, & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Vol.1. Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed., pp. 358–403). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, Inc.

  • Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Maassen, G., & Engels, R. (2005). Separation-individuation revisited: on the interplay of parent-adolescent relations, identity and emotional adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 89–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., Oosterwegel, A., & Vollebergh, W. (2002). Parental and peer attachment and identity development in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2001.0451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, M. J., Hernandez, L., & Ferrer-Wreder, L. (2008). Identity development and intervention studies: the right time for a marriage? Identity, 8, 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283480801940115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mu, W., Luo, J., Nickel, L., & Roberts, B. W. (2016). Generality or specificity? Examining the relation between personality traits and mental health outcomes using a bivariate bi-factor latent change model. European Journal of Personality, 30, 467–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullis, R. L., Graf, S. C., & Mullis, A. K. (2009). Parental relationships, autonomy, and identity processes of high school students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 170, 326–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320903218356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nada-Raja, S., McGee, R., & Stanton, W. R. (1992). Perceived attachments to parents and peers and psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01537898.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noom, M. J., Deković, M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (1999). Autonomy, attachment and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence: a double-edged sword? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 771–783. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1999.0269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, U., & Zappulla, C. (2009). Identity processes and quality of emotional autonomy: the contribution of two developmental tasks on middle-adolescents’ subjective well-being. Identity, 9, 323–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283480903422798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, S. E., & Côté, J. E. (2014). The identity issues inventory: identity stage resolution in the prolonged transition to adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 21, 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-014-9194-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust to intimacy: a new inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10, 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02087944.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • San Martini, P., Zavattini, G.C., Ronconi, S. (2009). L’inventario per l’attaccamento ai genitori ed ai pari (IPPA: Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment). Un’indagine psicometrica su un campione italiano di adolescent [The inventory of parent and peer attachment: a psychometric investigation in an Italian sample]. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 1, XXXVI, 199‒225.

  • Scabini, E, Marta, E., & Lanz, M. (2006). Transition to adulthood and family relations: an intergenerational perspective. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J. (2007). The structure of identity consolidation: multiple correlated constructs of one superordinate construct? Identity, 7, 27–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283480701319583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Hardy, S. A., Zamboanga, B. L., Meca, A., Waterman, A. S., & Picariello, S., et al. (2015). Identity in young adulthood: links with mental health and risky behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 36, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Mason, C. A., Pantin, H., & Szapocznik, J. (2008). Effect of family functioning and identity confusion on substance use and sexual behavior in Hispanic immigrant early adolescents. Identity, 8, 107–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283480801938440.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Meca, A., & Ritchie, R. A. (2012). Identity around the world: an overview. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 138, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Wang, W., & Olthuis, J. V. (2009). Measuring identity from an Eriksonian perspective: two sides of the same coin? Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., & Silverberg, S. B. (1986). The vicissitudes of autonomy in early adolescence. Child Development, 57, 841–851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sugimura, K., & Mizokami, S. (2012). Personal identity in Japan. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 138, 123–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sugimura, K., Phinney, J. S., Yamazaki, M., & Takeo, K. (2009). Compliance, negotiation, and self-assertion in Japanese adolescents’ disagreements with parents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33, 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025408098010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, M., & McLean, K. C. (2016). Understanding identity integration: theoretical, methodological, and applied issues. Journal of Adolescence, 47, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, R. B. (2004). The role of parental and peer attachment in the psychological health and self-esteem of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 479–493. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:joyo.0000048063.59425.20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Žukauskienė, R., Truskauskaitė-Kunevičienė, I., Kaniušonytė, G., & Crocetti, E. (2017). How do Lithuanian adolescents address identity questions? A four-wave longitudinal study on change and stability in identity styles. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2017.1285762.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr. Manabu Tsuzuki, Dr. Reiko Nakama, and Dr. Shinichi Mizokami for their help with data collection and various suggestions for this study.

Authors’ Contributions

K.S. and R.Ž. conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, and drafted the manuscript; E.C. participated in its design and coordination and drafted the manuscript; K.H. participated in its design, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript; G.K. participated in the design of the study and helped to draft the manuscript; S.H. performed the statistical analysis and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

K.S. was supported by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C), 15K04070. R.Ž. was supported by the grant from the Lithuanian Research Council [grant number LJB-5/2015].

Data Sharing Declaration

This manuscript’s data will not be deposited. The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University, 1-1-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8524, Japan

    Kazumi Sugimura & Shogo Hihara

  2. Department of Psychology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126, Bologna, Italy

    Elisabetta Crocetti

  3. Development Center for Higher Education, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan

    Kai Hatano

  4. Institute of Psychology, Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities St. 20, LT-08303, Vilnius, Lithuania

    Goda Kaniušonytė & Rita Žukauskienė

Authors
  1. Kazumi Sugimura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elisabetta Crocetti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kai Hatano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Goda Kaniušonytė
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Shogo Hihara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rita Žukauskienė
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kazumi Sugimura.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sugimura, K., Crocetti, E., Hatano, K. et al. A Cross-Cultural Perspective on the Relationships between Emotional Separation, Parental Trust, and Identity in Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 47, 749–759 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0819-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0819-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation