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A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Positive Action Program in a Low-Income, Racially Diverse, Rural County: Effects on Self-Esteem, School Hassles, Aggression, and Internalizing Symptoms

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Abstract

Positive Action is a school-based program that aims to decrease problem behaviors (e.g., violence, substance use) and increase positive behaviors (e.g., school engagement, academic achievement). Although a number of studies have shown that Positive Action successfully achieves these goals, few studies have evaluated the program’s effectiveness in rural schools. Given that rural youth are at an increased risk for risky behaviors (e.g., violence, substance use), this is a critical gap in the existing Positive Action research base. The current study assesses the impact of Positive Action on change rates of self-esteem, school hassles, aggression, and internalizing symptoms in a group (N = 1246, 52 % female) of ethnically/racially diverse (27 % White, 23 % African American, 12 % mixed race/other, 8 % Latino, 30 % as American Indian) middle school youth (age range 9–20) located in two violent, low-income rural counties in North Carolina. One county engaged in Positive Action over the 3-year study window while the other county did not. Following multiple imputation and propensity score analysis, 4 two-level hierarchical linear models were run using each of the outcome measures as dependent variables. The results indicate that the program generates statistically significant beneficial effects for youth from the intervention county on self-esteem scores and school hassles scores. Although the program generates beneficial effects for intervention youth on the change in aggression scores, the finding is not statistically significant. The finding on the change in internalizing scores shows a non-significant detrimental effect: the youth from the comparison county have lower internalizing scores than those from the intervention county. Implications are discussed.

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Acknowledgments

Funding for this research was provided through a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (5 U01 CE001948-03).

Authors’ Contributions

S.G. conceived of the study by selecting the independent variables and statistical methodologies to use and oversaw the statistical analysis. Q.W. conducted the statistical analysis and wrote the methods and analysis sections with support and guidance from S.G. P.R.S. obtained the funding to make the current study possible, implemented the data collection, and assisted in drafting and editing the manuscript. M.B. oversaw the implementation of the program and worked in the field ensuring the fidelity of Positive Action; she also wrote the implementation section. C.B.R.E. and K.L.C. wrote the remaining sections of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Brown School of Social Work, Washington University, CB# 1196, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA

    Shenyang Guo

  2. School of Social Work, University of North Carolina, CB# 3550, 325 Pittsboro St, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA

    Qi Wu & Caroline B. R. Evans

  3. School of Social Welfare, University of Kansas, 1545 Lilac Ln, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA

    Paul R. Smokowski & Martica Bacallao

  4. School of Social Work, Arizona State University, 411 N. Central Avenue, Suite 800, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA

    Katie L. Cotter

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  1. Shenyang Guo
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Correspondence to Shenyang Guo.

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Guo, S., Wu, Q., Smokowski, P.R. et al. A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Positive Action Program in a Low-Income, Racially Diverse, Rural County: Effects on Self-Esteem, School Hassles, Aggression, and Internalizing Symptoms. J Youth Adolescence 44, 2337–2358 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0358-1

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