Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Towards a Cognitive-Behavioral Understanding of Assertiveness: Effects of Cognition and Distress on Different Expressions of Assertive Behavior

  • Published:
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Assertiveness, as the ability to adequately express oneself while maintaining social gains, can be applied to various social contexts and concomitant social demands, but the cognitive and emotional correlates underlying assertive behaviour in diverse social events has not been considered. We tested a cognitive-behavioral framework for understanding the self-reported enactment of diverse types of assertive behaviours (i.e., displaying negative and positive feelings, expressing and managing personal limitations, and taking initiative), using a sample of 679 adolescents (mean age = 16.68, 261 boys) and a model generation approach to structural equation modelling. Cognition directly predicted lower distress and more frequent assertive behavior; also, cognition indirectly predicted assertive behavior through distress. Interpersonal management was the most salient cognitive theme predicting various types of assertive behaviors, alongside feeling less distressed when displaying negative feelings. Evidence was found for cognitive-behavioral theories being a valid approach to understanding assertiveness and sustaining insights for efficacious assertive training.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Socioeconomic status was assigned according to parents’ profession, and taking into account the Portuguese profession classification. Examples of professions in the high socioeconomic status groups are judges, higher education professors, or M.D.s; nurses, psychologists, or school teachers are included in the medium socioeconomic status group; the low socioeconomic group includes farmers, cleaning staff, or undifferentiated workers (Instituto Nacional de Estatística 2011).

  2. This measurement model achieved the best fit indicators, in comparison with two alternative models, namely a one factor model based on all observed variables and a second order model posing one total factor as reflected by all 12 latent variables, in turn described by the observed variables.

  3. Excluding items with very low loading values (i.e., two items with ʎ ≤ .30) did not change any of the measurement indicators portrayed in this paragraph.

References

  • Alberti, R., & Emmons, M. (2008). Your perfect right—Assertiveness and equality in your life and relationships guide to assertive living (9a ed.). California: Impact Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alden, L. E., & Safran, J. (1978). Irrational beliefs and nonassertive behavior. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2(4), 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arrindell, W. A., Akkerman, A., van der Ende, J., Schreurs, P. J. G., Brugman, A., & Sanderman, R. (2005). Normative studies with the Scale for Interpersonal behaviour (SIB): III. Psychiatric inpatients. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 941–952.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arrindell, W. A., Sanderman, R., Hageman, W., Pickersgill, M. J., Kwee, M. G. T., Vandermolen, H. T., et al. (1990). Correlates of assertiveness in normal and clinical-samples—A multidimensional approach. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy, 12(4), 153–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(90)90004-A.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. (2010). Develop your assertiveness (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruch, M. A., Kaflowitz, N. G., & Berger, P. (1988). Self-schema for assertiveness—Extending the validity of the self-schema construct. Journal of Research in Personality, 22(4), 424–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(88)90002-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erwin, E. (2002). Adolescent perceptions of relevant social problems. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nurse, 15(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2002.tb00320.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farley, J. P., & Kim-Spoon, J. (2014). The development of adolescent self-regulation: Reviewing the role of parent, peer, friend and romantic relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 37(4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.009.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R., Bamberger, E., & Kanat-Maymon, Y. (2013). Parent-specific reciprocity from infancy to adolescence shapes children’s social competence and dialogical skills. Attachment & Human Development, 15(4), 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.782650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksen, K., & Rhodes, J. (2004). The role of teacher relationships in the lives of students. New Directions for Youth Development, 103, 45–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frymier, A. B. (2005). Students’ classroom communication effectiveness. Communication Quarterly, 53(2), 197–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P. (2010). From self-criticism to self-compassion. In P. Gilbert (Ed.), The compassionate mind: A new approach to life’s challenges (pp. 309–359). Okland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Allan, S. (1994). Assertiveness, submissive behavior and social comparison. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1994.tb01125.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2005). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimberg, R., & Becker, R. (1981). Cognitive and behavioral models of assertive behavior: Review, analysis and integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 1(3), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(81)90011-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heimberg, R., Chianzzi, E., Becker, R., & Madrazo-Peterson, R. (1983). Cognitive mediation of assertive behavior: An analysis of the self-statement patterns of college students, psychiatric patients and normal adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7(5), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01187173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, L. J. (2014). Help seeking and social competence mediate the parental attachment-college student adjustment relation. Personal Relationships, 21(4), 640–654. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12055/abstract.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Instituto Nacional de Estatística. (2011). Classificação Portuguesa das profissões 2010 [2010 Portuguese classification of professions]. Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de Estatística.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, M. K., & Cochran, S. D. (1982). The effects of cognitive restructuring on assertive behavior. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6(1), 67–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korkmaz, S., Goksuluk, D., & Zararsiz, G. (2014). An R package for assessing multivariate normality. The R Journal, 6, 151–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R., Wilson, S., Brown, B. B., Furstenberg, F., & Verma, S. (2002). Changes in adolescents interpersonal experiences: Are they being prepared for adult relationships in the twenty-first century? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(1), 31–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laursen, B., & Mooney, K. S. (2008). Relationship network quality: Adolescent adjustment and perceptions of relationships with parents and friends. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(1), 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.78.1.47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Rhemtulla, M., Gibson, K., & Schoemann, A. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcels controversy needn’t be one. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033266.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modelling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 201–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marchezini-Cunha, V., & Tourinho, E. (2010). Assertiveness and self-control: A behavior-analytic interpretation. Psicologia E Teoria Pesquisa, 26, 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722010000200011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity, 12(2), 160–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. A., & Crick, N. R. (1999). Rose-colored glasses: Examining the social information-processing of prosocial young adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19(1), 17–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431699019001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plenty, S., Östberg, V., Almquist, Y. U., Augustine, L., & Modin, B. (2014). Psychosocial working conditions: An analysis of emotional symptoms and conduct problems amongst adolescent students. Journal of Adolescence, 37(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rakus, R. (1991). Assertive behavior—Theory, research and training. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rich, A. R., & Schroeder, H. E. (1976). Research issues in assertiveness training. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 1081–1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salter, A. (2002). Conditioned reflex therapy: The classic book on assertiveness that began behavior therapy. Gretna, LA: Wellness Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarkova, M., Bacikova-Sleskova, M., Orosova, O., Geckova, A. M., Katreniakova, Z., Klein, D., et al. (2013). Associations between assertiveness, psychological well-being, and self-esteem in adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(1), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00988.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H. (2003). Social skills training with children and young people: Theory, evidence and practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 8(2), 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-3588.00051.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trudeau, L., Lillehoj, C., Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (2003). The role of assertiveness and decision making in early adolescent substance initiation: Mediating processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(3), 301–328. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.1303003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vagos, P., & Pereira, A. (2009). Qualitative analysis on the concept of assertiveness. In K. A. Fanti (Ed.), Applying psychological research to understand and promote the well-being of clinical and non-clinical populations (pp. 99–112). Athens: Atiner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vagos, P., & Pereira, A. (2010). A proposal for evaluating cognition in assertiveness. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 657–665. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vagos, P., & Pereira, A. (2016). A cognitive perspective on understanding and training assertiveness. European Psychologist, 21, 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vagos, P., Pereira, A., & Arrindell, W. (2014). Validação da versão reduzida da Escala de Comportamento Interpessoal para adolescentes Portugueses Validation of the short version of the Scale for Interpersonal Behavior for Portuguese adolescents. Psicologia: Reflexão E Crítica, 27(3), 452–461. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7153.201427305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vavrichek, S. M. (2010). The guide to compassionate assertiveness. How to express your needs and deal with conflict while keeping a kind heart. Okland, CA: New Harbinger Publications Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolpe, J. (1973). Assertive training. In J. Wolpe (Ed.), The practice of behavior therapy (2nd ed., pp. 80–94). E.U.A: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported in part by a doctorate grant from the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia—Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Grant Number SFRH/BD/29574/2006) awarded to the first author.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Paula Vagos

    Present address: Portucalense Institute for Human Development – INPP, Universidade Portucalense, Oporto, Portugal

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Education and Psycology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

    Paula Vagos

  2. Departament of Education and Psychology/CIDTFF, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

    Anabela Pereira

Authors
  1. Paula Vagos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anabela Pereira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paula Vagos.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

This manuscript is based on data also used on the doctoral dissertation of the first author. All named authors have read and approved the manuscript and there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. The order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all authors.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study that involved human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Portuguese Directorate-General for Education and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was further obtained from all individual participants included in the study and, for underage participants, from their parents and/or legal guardians.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Vagos, P., Pereira, A. Towards a Cognitive-Behavioral Understanding of Assertiveness: Effects of Cognition and Distress on Different Expressions of Assertive Behavior. J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther 37, 133–148 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-018-0296-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-018-0296-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation