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Socialization, Selection, or Both? The Role of Gene–Environment Interplay in the Association Between Exposure to Antisocial Peers and Delinquency

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Abstract

Objectives

To better explain the near-universal association between peer and self-reported delinquency, three frameworks have been offered and have received varying degrees of support: (1) socialization or the social transmission of norms, attitudes, and behaviors among group members; (2) selection or the congregation of youth with similar traits and predispositions; and (3) enhancement or a combination of socialization and selection processes.

Methods

Making use of sibling pairs and peer network data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, the current study compares all three frameworks using modified bivariate Cholesky models to simultaneously examine gene-environment correlations (rGE) and interactions (G × E).

Results

Findings revealed that peer deviance (as reported by peers themselves) moderated underlying influences on delinquency such that genetic influences decreased and environmental influences increased as peer deviance increased. While previous studies have reported additional patterns of moderation (e.g., increases in both genetic and environmental influences), such studies have relied on subjective measures of peer behavior, more restrictive measures of delinquency, and samples comprised of young children.

Conclusions

The results revealed preliminary evidence in favor of the selection hypothesis, but the overall patterns of moderation stemming from the examined G × E fall in line more closely with the enhancement hypothesis of peer influence.

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Notes

  1. This discussion is limited to active rGE since this form of rGE has been most closely linked to peer group formation and selection processes in previous research (TenEyck and Barnes 2015). However, two additional forms of rGE have been discussed previously—passive and evocative. Additional information on all three forms of rGE can be found elsewhere (Plomin et al. 2013; Rutter et al. 2006; Scarr and McCartney 1983).

  2. Importantly, multiple interpretations of G × Es have been offered in the existing literature, with at least three different theoretical models proposed previously: (1) diathesis-stress (Monroe and Simons 1991; Zuckerman 1999); (2) differential susceptibility (Belsky and Pluess 2009; Ellis et al. 2011); and (3) average and expectable environments hypothesis (Scarr 1992). These models, along with additional but similar models [e.g., Guo et al.’s (2015) swing model], have been described elsewhere (for a more comprehensive summary see Shanahan & Hofer, 2005), but an additional summary is also included in the online supplement.

  3. The decision to include both twin and sibling pairs in the final analytic sample was primarily driven by the desire to obtain acceptable levels of statistical power and variability in the examined peer deviance and self-reported delinquency measures. More specifically, limiting the final analytic sample to MZ and DZ twin pairs with valid information on the study measures would result in a final sample size of N = 261 pairs (n = 106 MZ pairs and n = 155 DZ pairs). In addition, the results of a recent study examining criminal behavior within Swedish population data (twins and siblings born between 1958 and 1991) found that biometric modeling results derived from full and half siblings directly aligned with results from models examining MZ and DZ twin pairs (Kendler et al. 2015). For these reasons, the final analytic sample includes both twin and sibling pairs.

  4. This is a necessary extension and common practice when using modified bivariate Cholesky models as Purcell (2002) reported that failing to account for the presence of rGE increases the likelihood of detecting a false positive when testing for the presence of G × E. An undetected rGE may also result in multicollinearity between genetic and environmental influences, effectively increasing the likelihood of a false negative.

  5. rGE can be calculated using the following formula and parameter estimates from the baseline Cholesky model (presented in the online supplement):

    $$r{\text{GE}} = \frac{{a_{R} a_{c} }}{{\sqrt {a_{R}^{2} \left( {a_{C}^{2} + a_{U}^{2} } \right)} }} = \frac{{.74\left( {.34} \right)}}{{\sqrt {.74^{2} \left( {.34^{2} + .32^{2} } \right)} }} = \, .728$$

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank JC Barnes, Jon Brauer, and Jukka Savolainen for thoughtful comments on previous drafts of this study. We would also like to thank Laura Dugan and the three anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments, as they have certainly strengthened the study. The content of this article is the authors’ sole responsibility and any errors or omissions are solely ours. This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from Grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis.

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  1. School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6001 Dodge Street, 218 CPACS, Omaha, NE, 68182-0149, USA

    Joseph A. Schwartz, Starr J. Solomon & Bradon A. Valgardson

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Schwartz, J.A., Solomon, S.J. & Valgardson, B.A. Socialization, Selection, or Both? The Role of Gene–Environment Interplay in the Association Between Exposure to Antisocial Peers and Delinquency. J Quant Criminol 35, 1–26 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-017-9368-3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-017-9368-3

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