Abstract
This study aims to expand our understanding of the relations of oral reading fluency at word, sentence, and passage levels to reading comprehension in Chinese-speaking secondary school-aged students. In total, 80 participants (46 males and 34 females) ranging from 13 to 15 years old joined this study and were tested on tasks of oral reading fluency at three levels, reading comprehension, and nonverbal IQ. Our results showed a clear relationship from fluency at the level of the word to the sentence and then the passage in oral reading fluency as well as both the direct and indirect importance of word-level oral reading fluency in reading comprehension. Only the indirect effect from word-level oral reading fluency to reading comprehension through passage-level oral reading fluency was significant. Our findings suggest that sentence-level oral reading fluency is the crucial component to reading comprehension in Chinese. Additionally, recognition of the potential value of unique features, such as syntactic awareness and word segment accuracy, that happen at the sentence level should be integrated into instructional activities for reading.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aldhanhani, Z. R., & Abu-Ayyash, E. A. (2020). Theories and research on oral reading fluency: What is needed? Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 10(4), 379–388. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1004.05.
Altani, A., Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., & Georgiou, G. K. (2020). From individual word recognition to word list and text reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 22–39. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000359.
Álvarez-Cañizo, M., Cueva, E., Cuetos, F., & Suárez-Coalla, P. (2020). Reading fluency and reading comprehension in Spanish secondary students. Psicothema, 32(1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2019.196.
Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1979). Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading. Reading Education Report No. 11., 1–49 Urbana: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading.
Angosto, A., Sánchez, P., Álvarez, M., Cuevas, I., & León, J. A. (2013). Evidence for top-down processing in reading comprehension of children. Psicología Educativa, 19(2), 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1135-755X(13)70014-9.
Arcodia, G. F. (2007). Chinese: A language of compound words. F. Montermini, G. Boyé, and N. Hathout (Eds.). Selected proceedings of the 5th décembrettes: Morphology in Toulouse (pp. 79–90). Somerville, MA.
Bai, J., Li, W., Yang, Y., Wu, J., He, W., & Xu, M. (2020). Cognitive correlates of reading fluency in Chinese school-aged children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00903.
Barth, A. E., Tolar, T. D., Fletcher, J. M., & Francis, D. (2014). The effects of student and text characteristics on the oral reading fluency of middle-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 162–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033826.
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Trivedi, P., Olson, E., Gould, L., Hiramatsu, S., & Westhaggen, Y., S (2010). Applying the multiple dimensions of reading fluency to assessment and instruction. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909336083.
Brimo, D., Apel, K., & Fountain, T. (2017). Examining the contributions of syntactic awareness and syntactic knowledge to reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 40(1), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12050.
Ceccagno, A., & Basciano, B. (2007). Compound headedness in Chinese: An analysis of neologisms. Morphology, 17(2), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-008-9119-0.
Chan, K. S. C., & Yeung, P. S. (2020). Prediction of Chinese reading fluency by verbal and non-verbal visual attention span measures. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03049.
Chang, M., Zhang, K., Hao, L., Zhao, S., McGowan, V. A., Warrington, K. L., & Gunn, S. C. (2020). Word predictability depends on parafoveal preview validity in Chinese reading. Visual Cognition, 28(1), 33–40.
Chik, P. P. M., Ho, C. S. H., Yeung, P. S., Chan, D. W. O., Chung, K. K. H., Luan, H., & Lau, W. S. Y. (2012). Syntactic skills in sentence reading comprehension among Chinese elementary school children. Reading and Writing, 25(3), 679–699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9293-4.
Choi, B. S. (2016). An overview of bootstrapping method applicable to survey researches in rehabilitation science. Physical Therapy Korea, 23(2), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.12674/ptk.2016.23.2.093.
Chung, K. K., Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H. (2013). Contributions of syntactic awareness to reading in chinese-speaking adolescent readers with and without dyslexia. Dyslexia, 19(1), 11–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1448.
Crosson, A. C., & Lesaux, N. K. (2010). Revisiting assumptions about the relationship of fluent reading to comprehension: Spanish-speakers’ text-reading fluency in English. Reading and Writing, 23(5), 475–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9168-8.
Dai, L., Zhang, C., & Liu, X. (2016). A special Chinese reading acceleration training paradigm: To enhance the reading fluency and comprehension of Chinese children with reading disabilities. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1937. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01937.
Deacon, S. H., & Kieffer, M. (2018). Understanding how syntactic awareness contributes to reading comprehension: Evidence from mediation and longitudinal models. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(1), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000198.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Automaticity and automatization. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., & Francis, D. J. (2011). The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(2), 109–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888431003623546.
Domingue, B. W., Hough, H. J., Lang, D., & Yeatman, J. (2021). Changing Patterns of Growth in Oral Reading Fluency during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Working Paper. Policy Analysis for California Education, PACE.
Fernandes, S., Querido, L., Verhaeghe, A., Marques, C., & Araújo, L. (2017). Reading development in European Portuguese: Relationships between oral reading fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 30(9), 1987–2007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9763-z.
Foo, S., & Li, H. (2004). Chinese word segmentation and its effect on information retrieval. Information Processing & Management, 40(1), 161–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4573(02)00079-1.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0503_3.
Gao, J., Li, M., Huang, C. N., & Wu, A. (2005). Chinese word segmentation and named entity recognition: A pragmatic approach. Computational Linguistics, 31(4), 531–574. https://doi.org/10.1162/089120105775299177
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., Cui, Y., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2013). Why is rapid automatized naming related to reading? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115(1), 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.10.015.
Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher, 59(7), 636–644. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.7.3
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Hersch, J., & Andrews, S. (2012). Lexical quality and reading skill: Bottom-up and top-down contributions to sentence processing. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(3), 240–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2011.564244.
Huang, C., Lorusso, M. L., Luo, Z., & Zhao, J. (2019). Developmental differences in the relationship between visual attention span and Chinese reading fluency. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02450.
Huang, C., Liu, N., & Zhao, J. (2021). Different predictive roles of phonological awareness and visual attention span for early character reading fluency in Chinese. The Journal of General Psychology, 148(1), 45–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2019.1711356.
Hudson, R. F., Pullen, P. C., Lane, H. B., & Torgesen, J. K. (2008). The complex nature of reading fluency: A multidimensional view. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25(1), 4–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560802491208.
Jenkins, J. R., Fuchs, L. S., Van Den Broek, P., Espin, C., & Deno, S. L. (2003). Sources of individual differences in reading comprehension and reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 719–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.719.
Jiang, W. (2009). Acquisition of Word Order in Chinese as a Foreign Language. Mouton de Gruyter.
Joshi, R. M., Tao, S., Aaron, P. G., & Quiroz, B. (2012). Cognitive component of componential model of reading applied to different orthographies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 480–486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411432690
Kang, E. Y., & Shin, M. (2019). The contributions of reading fluency and decoding to reading comprehension for struggling readers in fourth grade. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 35(3), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2018.1521758.
Kieffer, M. J., Biancarosa, G., & Mancilla-Martinez, J. (2013). Roles of morphological awareness in the reading comprehension of spanish-speaking language minority learners: Exploring partial mediation by vocabulary and reading fluency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(4), 697–725. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716411000920.
Kim, Y. S. (2015). Language and cognitive predictors of text comprehension: Evidence from multivariate analysis. Child Development, 86(1), 128–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12293.
Kim, Y. S. G. (2020). Hierarchical and dynamic relations of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension: Testing the direct and indirect effects model of reading (DIER). Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 667. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000407.
Kim, Y. S. G., & Wagner, R. K. (2015). Text (oral) reading fluency as a construct in reading development: An investigation of its mediating role for children from grades 1 to 4. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(3), 224–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1007375.
Kim, Y. S., Wagner, R. K., & Foster, E. (2011). Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension: A latent variable study of first-grade readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4), 338–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.493964.
Kim, Y. S., Wagner, R. K., & Lopez, D. (2012). Developmental relations between reading fluency and reading comprehension: A longitudinal study from Grade 1 to Grade 2. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(1), 93–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.03.002.
Kim, Y. S., Park, C. H., & Wagner, R. K. (2014). Is oral/text reading fluency a bridge to reading comprehension? Reading and Writing, 27(1), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9434-7.
Kim, Y. S. G., Quinn, J. M., & Petscher, Y. (2021). What is text reading fluency and is it a predictor or an outcome of reading comprehension? A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 57(5), 718–732. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001167.
Klauda, S. L., & Guthrie, J. T. (2008). Relationships of three components of reading fluency to reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.310.
Kline, P. (2015). A handbook of test construction (psychology revivals): Introduction to psychometric design. Routledge.
Ko, H. W., & Zhan, Y. L. (2007). Reading comprehension screening test for secondary school students. Ministry of Education Republic of China (Taiwan).
Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.3.
Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Meisinger, E. B. (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230–251. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.2.4.
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6(2), 293–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2.
Li, L., & Wu, X. (2015). Effects of metalinguistic awareness on reading comprehension and the mediator role of reading fluency from grades 2 to 4. PloS One, 10(3), e0114417. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114417.
Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. S. (2012). The development of reading comprehension skills in children learning English as a second language. Reading and Writing, 25(8), 1873–1898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9309-8.
Lo, Y. Y., Cooke, N. L., & Starling, A. L. P. (2011). Using a repeated reading program to improve generalization of oral reading fluency. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(1), 115–140. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2011.0007.
Ma, X. (2019). Effect of word order asymmetry on cognitive process of English-Chinese sight translation by interpreting trainees: Evidence from eye-tracking. PhD diss. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2003). Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young children’s Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 743–751. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.743.
Meng, X., Cheng-Lai, A., Zeng, B., Stein, J. F., & Zhou, X. (2011). Dynamic visual perception and reading development in Chinese school children. Annals of Dyslexia, 61(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-010-0049-2.
Modern Chinese frequency dictionary. (1985). Beijing, China: Beijing Language Institute.
Mokhtari, K., & Niederhauser, D. S. (2013). Vocabulary and syntactic knowledge factors in 5th grade students’ reading comprehension. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 5, 157–170.
Mokhtari, K., & Thompson, H. B. (2006). How problems of reading fluency and comprehension are related to difficulties in syntactic awareness skills among fifth graders. Literacy Research and Instruction, 46(1), 73–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388070609558461.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (00-4769). National Institute of Child Health & Human Development.
Nevo, E., Vaknin-Nusbaum, V., Brande, S., & Gambrell, L. (2020). Oral reading fluency, reading motivation and reading comprehension among second graders. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 33(8), 1945–1970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10025-5.
O’Brien, B. A., Wallot, S., Haussmann, A., & Kloos, H. (2014). Using complexity metrics to assess silent reading fluency: A cross-sectional study comparing oral and silent reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(4), 235–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.862248.
Oakhill, J. V., & Cain, K. (2012). The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16, 91–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.529219.
Oslund, E. L., Clemens, N. H., Simmons, D. C., Smith, S. L., & Simmons, L. E. (2016). How vocabulary knowledge of middle-school students from low socioeconomic backgrounds influences comprehension processes and outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.013.
Ostovar-Namaghi, S. A., Hosseini, S. M., & Norouzi, S. (2015). Reading fluency techniques from the Bottom-up: A grounded theory. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 4(5), 29–35. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.4n.5p.29.
Park, Y., & Warschauer, M. (2016). Syntactic enhancement and second language literacy: An experimental study. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 180–199.
Peng, P., Lee, K., Luo, J., Li, S., Joshi, R. M., & Tao, S. (2021). Simple view of reading in Chinese: A one-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Review of Educational Research, 91(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320964198.
Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. Oxford University Press.
Perfetti, C. A. (1999). Comprehending written language: A blueprint of the reader. In C. Brown, & P. Hagoort (Eds.), The neurocognition of language (pp. 167–208). Oxford University Press.
Poon, W. Y., & Hong, P. M. (2003). A study of the Chinese characters recommended for the subject of Chinese language in primary schools. Hong Kong Baptist University Language Centre.
Poulsen, M., & Gravgaard, A. K. (2016). Who did what to whom? The relationship between syntactic aspects of sentence comprehension and text comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(4), 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2016.1180695.
Price, K. W., Meisinger, E. B., Louwerse, M. M., & D’Mello, S. (2016). The contributions of oral and silent reading fluency to reading comprehension. Reading Psychology, 37(2), 167–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2015.1025118.
Rainey, V. R., Davidson, D., & Li-Grining, C. (2016). Executive functions as predictors of syntactic awareness in English monolingual and English–Spanish bilingual language brokers and nonbrokers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(4), 963–995. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716415000326.
Rasinski, T. (2014). Fluency matters. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 7(1), 3–12.
Rodgers, J. L. (1999). The bootstrap, the jackknife, and the randomization test: A sampling taxonomy. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 34(4), 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3404_2.
Sabatini, J., Wang, Z., & O’Reilly, T. (2019). Relating reading comprehension to oral reading performance in the NAEP fourth-grade special study of oral reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 54(2), 253–271. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.226.
Schimmel, N., & Ness, M. (2017). The effects of oral and silent reading on reading comprehension. Reading Psychology, 38(4), 390–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2016.1278416.
Shen, H. H., & Jiang, X. (2013). Character reading fluency, word segmentation accuracy, and reading comprehension in L2 Chinese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(1), 1–25.
Silva, M., & Cain, K. (2015). The relations between lower and higher level comprehension skills and their role in prediction of early reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037769.
Siu, T. S. C., & Ho, S. H. C. (2020). A longitudinal investigation of syntactic awareness and reading comprehension in chinese-english bilingual children. Learning and Instruction, 67, 101327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101327.
Snellings, P., van der Leij, A., de Jong, P. F., & Blok, H. (2009). Enhancing the reading fluency and comprehension of children with reading disabilities in an orthographically transparent language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408331038.
Song, S., Georgiou, G. K., Su, M., & Hua, S. (2016). How well do phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming correlate with Chinese reading accuracy and fluency? A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(2), 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1088543.
Spear-Swerling, L. (2006). Children’s reading comprehension and oral reading fluency in easy text. Reading and Writing, 19(2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-005-4114-x.
Stafura, J. Z., & Perfetti, C. A. (2017). Integrating word processing with text comprehension. In K. Cain, D. L. Compton, & R. K. Parrila (Eds.), Theories of reading development (pp. 9–32). John Benjamins.
Sung, Y. T., Chen, J. L., Lee, Y. S., Cha, J. H., Tseng, H. C., Lin, W. C., Chang, T. H., & Chang, K. E. (2013). Investigating Chinese text readability: Linguistic features, modeling, and validation. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 55(1), 75–106. https://doi.org/10.6129/CJP.20120621.
Suraprajit, P. (2019). Bottom-up vs top-down model: The perception of reading strategies among Thai university students. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 10(3), 454–460. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1003.07.
Taft, M., & Zhu, X. (1997). Submorphemic processing in reading Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 23(3), 761–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.23.3.761.
Tindal, G., Nese, J. F., Stevens, J. J., & Alonzo, J. (2016). Growth on oral reading fluency measures as a function of special education and measurement sufficiency. Remedial and Special Education, 37(1), 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515590234.
Tong, X., Tong, X., & McBride, C. (2017). Unpacking the relation between morphological awareness and Chinese word reading: Levels of morphological awareness and vocabulary. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.07.003.
van Steensel, R., Oostdam, R., van Gelderen, A., & van Schooten, E. (2016). The role of word decoding, vocabulary knowledge and meta-cognitive knowledge in monolingual and bilingual low‐achieving adolescents’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 39(3), 312–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12042.
Veenendaal, N. J., Groen, M. A., & Verhoeven, L. (2015). What oral text reading fluency can reveal about reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(3), 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12024.
Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 211–239. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0503_2.
Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(4), 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940003300409.
Yang, S. (2021). Oral reading fluency of Chinese second language learners. Reading and Writing, 34(4), 981–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10101-w.
Yildirim, K., & Rasinski, T. (2014). Reading fluency beyond English: Investigations into reading fluency in Turkish elementary students. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 7(1), 97–106.
Zang, C., Wang, Y., Bai, X., Yan, G., Drieghe, D., & Liversedge, S. P. (2016). The use of probabilistic lexicality cues for word segmentation in Chinese reading. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(3), 548–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1061030.
Zhang, L., Hong, T., Li, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., & Shu, H. (2021). Differences and similarities in the contributions of phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge and semantic competence to reading fluency in Chinese school-age children with and without hearing loss. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.649375.
Zhao, J., Liu, M., Liu, H., & Huang, C. (2018). The visual attention span deficit in Chinese children with reading fluency difficulty. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 73, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.12.017.
Zhao, Y., Cheng, Y., & Wu, X. (2019). Contributions of morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming (RAN) to Chinese children’s reading comprehension versus reading fluency: Evidence from a longitudinal mediation model. Reading and Writing, 32(8), 2013–2036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09935-w.
Zhao, A., Guo, Y., & Dinnesen, M. S. (2021). The direct and indirect effects of language and cognitive skills on Chinese reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10192-z.
Funding
This study was partially supported by a grant from Ministry of Education, Taiwan (Yushan Young Fellow Program) to Dr. Li-Chih WANG.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
The ethical approval of this study has been given by Faculty Human Research Ethics Committee at The Education University of Hong Kong (Code: FHREC:18/19-ER042).
Informed Consent
The informed consent of all the participated children’s parents was obtained by the consent forms before the data collection.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Jhuo, RA., Hui, CI., Chen, JK. et al. The Relationships of Oral Reading Fluency at Word, Sentence, and Passage Levels and Reading Comprehension in Chinese. J Psycholinguist Res 53, 42 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-024-10083-8
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-024-10083-8