An Eye-Tracking Study on the Processing of L2 Collocations: The Effect of Congruency, Proficiency, and Transparency

Abstract

The availability of a first language translation equivalent (i.e., congruency) has repeatedly been shown to influence second-language collocation processing in decontextualized tasks. However, no study to date has examined how L2 speakers process congruent/incongruent collocations on-line in a real-world context. The present study aimed to fill this gap by examining the eye-movement behavior of 31 Arabic-English speakers and 30 native English speakers as they read 20 congruent and 20 incongruent collocations (in addition to 40 control phrases) in short contexts. The study also examined possible modulating effects of proficiency level and transparency on congruency effects. Results showed that non-natives (similar to native speakers) showed a processing advantage for collocations over control phrases. However, there was no effect of congruency (i.e., no difference between congruent and incongruent collocations) for either group, and no modulating effect of proficiency or transparency on congruency. We discuss implications of the findings for theories of L2 lexical processing.

Appendix: Target/Control Items and Sentences

	Target collocation	Word class	Item Type	COCA frequency	MI COCA score	Familiarity	Transparency rating	Predictability in context	Control pair	COCA frequency	MI COCA score	Familiarity	Sentence
1	Full responsibility	AN	Congruent	424	5.76	6.78	6.4	0.8	Filled responsibility	0	–	2.33	There are no excuses and I take full/filled responsibility for everything I have done
2	Golden rule	AN	Congruent	410	7.59	6.22	3.92	0	Shining rule	0	–	2.33	She had forgotten the golden/shining rule of sales: the customer is always right
3	Natural birth	AN	Congruent	73	4.07	5.78	5.67	0	Ordinary birth	1	− 0.15	2.89	I had wanted a natural/ordinary birth with my first child, but it wasn’t meant to be
4	Final result	AN	Congruent	244	4.51	6	6.5	0.6	Closing result	0	–	3.11	Once the votes are counted, we will know the final/closing results of the national election
5	Strong feeling	AN	Congruent	295	4.69	6.22	6.33	0	Huge feeling	6	− 0.33	3.33	I always had a strong/huge feeling that she was going to rise to the top quickly
6	Turning point	AN	Congruent	3180	7.64	5.44	5.33	0.2	Running point	3	− 3.58	2.44	We are at a turning/running point for the future of our nation
7	Bright side	AN	Congruent	547	5.62	6.89	4.50	0.7	Burning side	0	–	1.89	He always looks on the bright/burning side and finds reasons to be hopeful
8	Limited ability	AN	Congruent	155	4.82	5.56	6.58	0	Narrow ability	0	–	3	She had a limited/narrow ability to understand and express the truth
9	Smart move	AN	Congruent	358	5.91	6.89	5.25	0	Keen move	0	–	2.78	It was a smart/keen move to keep the front room as it is, and not change it into a bedroom
10	Comfortable chair	AN	Congruent	138	5.84	5.89	6.5	0.4	Pleasant chair	0	–	2.11	She sat in a very comfortable/pleasant chair, looking at a storybook
11	Soft drinks	AN	Incongruent	800	10.19	6.78	4.10	0	Easy drinks	0	–	3.56	I stopped by the store and got some more soft/easy drinks for the long ride
12	Fresh start	AN	Incongruent	720	5.81	6.67	5.42	0	Recent start	9	− 1.6	3.22	Once they get a fresh/recent start, things should work out for the best
13	Serious mistake	AN	Incongruent	236	6.32	6.11	6.50	0	Angry mistake	0	–	2.11	It was a very serious/angry mistake that cost several people their lives
14	Heavy traffic	AN	Incongruent	263	6.69	6.56	5.42	0.5	Fat traffic	0	–	3	We were stuck in heavy/fat traffic for more than an hour
15	Short notice	AN	Incongruent	516	6.76	6.89	5.42	0	Plain notice	0	–	2.44	She complained of having short/plain notice to plan an international business trip
16	Good faith	AN	Incongruent	1419	5.31	6.33	5.25	0	Fine faith	1	− 2.3	1.44	We printed the report in good/fine faith but have now learned the details were incorrect
17	Tall building	AN	Incongruent	120	4.46	6.11	7.00	0.2	Straight building	0	–	1.56	We had dinner at the rooftop restaurant of a tall/straight building with a nice view of the city
18	Deep trouble	AN	Incongruent	442	6.14	5.56	5.83	0.3	Difficult trouble	0	–	2.11	The world economy is in deep/difficult trouble, and we are all affected by it
19	Hard copy	AN	Incongruent	375	6.24	5.89	4.25	0	Firm copy	0	–	2.33	Companies are attempting to avoid printing hard/firm copies to reduce operating costs
20	Poor weather	AN	Incongruent	85	4.32	6	5.75	0	Low weather	1	− 2.53	3.89	The search for the men who went missing in poor/low weather has become an impossible mission
21	Appreciate concern	VN	Congruent	69	4.19	6.89	5.92	0.1	Realize your concern	0	–	2.78	I certainly do appreciate/realize your concern, but things will be alright
22	Raise hand	VN	Congruent	623	4.48	7	6.40	0.2	Advance his hand	2	− 2.95	3.44	Khaled is always the first to raise/advance his hand when the teacher asks a question
23	Collect information	VN	Congruent	442	5.7	6	6.50	0	Grow information	0	–	2	The manager asked Ana to collect/grow information about customer interests to boost their sales
24	Improve image	VN	Congruent	162	4.43	5.78	5.83	0.1	Increase the image	6	− 1.3	3.11	Appealing advertisements might improve/increase the image of our company on the market
25	Cross river	VN	Congruent	261	5.1	5.33	6.42	0	Pass the river	1	− 3.71	2.67	The children should cross/pass the river in order to reach the nearest school in town
26	Lose money	VN	Congruent	776	4.36	6.33	6.67	0	Fail money	0	–	1.22	It is impossible for creditors to lose/fail money, no matter how risky their investments may be
27	Accept fact	VN	Congruent	485	4.43	5.78	6.40	0.1	Gain the fact	0	–	2.22	She still refuses to accept/gain the fact that her father is dead
28	Play role	VN	Congruent	3058	5.7	5.44	4.75	0	Carry a role	5	− 1.53	3	Apparently, our food choices do play/carry a role in the development of many diseases
29	Use force	VN	Congruent	3556	5.06	6.44	6.50	0	Practice force	3	− 3.19	3.22	The military and police do not want to use/practice force against the protesters
30	Waste time	VN	Congruent	2787	4.96	7	5.50	0	Ruin time	4	− 2.11	3.78	Ali did not want to waste/ruin time reading such a boring book
31	Catch cold	VN	Incongruent	142	3.95	6.89	5.00	0	Attract a cold	1	–	3.22	It is more likely for people to catch/attract a cold while flying than riding in a car
32	Pay visit	VN	Incongruent	179	3.02	6.78	5.20	0	Present a visit	5	− 1.66	2.56	He managed to pay/present a visit to his old friend in London
33	Throw party	VN	Incongruent	134	3.41	6.78	5.10	0	Blow a party	2	− 2.00	3.56	My sister knows how to throw/blow a party for little kids
34	Meet challenge	VN	Incongruent	348	4.68	5.22	5.58	0	Hit the challenge	1	− 4.03	2.11	Schools are working quickly to meet/hit the challenges of remote learning
35	Make appointment	VN	Incongruent	440	4.66	6.89	6.58	0	Fit an appointment	0	–	2.56	You have to make/fit an appointment with Dr. Smith to discuss your options
36	Break promise	VN	Incongruent	74	3.12	6.11	5.67	0	Split a promise	0	–	1.56	Adam was a sweet kid who would never break/split a promise to his parents
37	Eat soup	VN	Incongruent	67	4.75	5.56	7.00	0	Pick soup	2	− 0.31	1.44	Mary and her brother often eat/pick soup on Friday nights
38	Deliver baby	VN	Incongruent	116	4.71	5.89	6.42	0	Provide a baby	5	− 2.41	2.56	The woman who helped deliver/provide the baby said the mother was doing great
39	Satisfy need	VN	Incongruent	83	3.57	6.33	6.20	0	Treat the need	2	− 3.68	3.89	In order to succeed, the company should satisfy/treat the needs of its most loyal customers
40	Bring peace	VN	Incongruent	530	4.72	6.78	5.33	0	Bear peace	0	–	4.22	The new president will bring/bear peace to the country, as well as to the entire region