Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Positive Expectancies and Subjective Well-Being: A Prospective Study Among Undergraduates in Serbia

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study investigates the relationship between two types of positive expectancies—dispositional optimism and general self-efficacy—and four indicators of subjective well-being—life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and depression—at three time points over a 2-year period. In addition, the moderating role of positive expectancies in the relationship between negative life events and subjective well-being were examined. A total of 367 undergraduate students from Serbia (Mage = 21.57 years) completed measures at each time point. The results of the path analysis showed that optimism was concurrently associated with all indicators of subjective well-being, whereas self-efficacy had consistent concurrent associations only with positive affect. Positive expectancies were generally weak prospective predictors of subjective well-being, with higher levels of optimism at Time 2 (6-month follow-up) predicting higher levels of life satisfaction at Time 3 (2-year follow-up), and higher levels of self-efficacy at Time 2 predicting a higher positive affect at Time 3. Some evidence of reverse causality was also found, with a higher positive affect at Time 1 and Time 2 predicting higher levels of both optimism and self-efficacy at later time points. Positive expectancies did not moderate the relationship between negative life events and subjective well-being. Our results suggest that findings of cross-sectional studies on the relationship between positive expectancies and subjective well-being cannot be generalized to longitudinal data and that causal contribution of positive expectancies to subjective well-being might be overestimated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We use the term ‘target variable’ instead of ‘dependent variable’, as the latter can be a bit confusing. That is, what we call ‘the target variable’ occurs both as a dependent variable and as an independent variable in our model (as is explained in the text).

References

  • Alarcon, G. M., Bowling, N. A., & Khazon, S. (2013). Great expectations: A meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 821–827.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Leaf, S. L. (2002). In search of the unique aspects of hope: Pinning our hopes on positive emotions, future-oriented thinking, hard times, and other people. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 276–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, P. C., Eng, W., Frisch, M. B., & Snyder, C. R. (2007). Hope and optimism as related to life satisfaction. Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 168–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caprara, G. V., & Steca, P. (2005). Affective and social self–regulatory efficacy beliefs as determinants of positive thinking and happiness. European Psychologist, 4, 275–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Alessandri, G., Abela, J. R. Z., & McWhinnie, C. M. (2010). Positive orientation: explorations on what is common to life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, 39, 63–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (2014). Optimism. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 4500–4503). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 293–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2018). Generalized optimism. In G. Oettingen, A. T. Sevincer, & P. Gollwitzer (Eds.), The psychology of thinking about the future (pp. 214–230). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 879–889.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, E. C. (1998). Does dispositional optimism moderate the relation between perceived stress and psychological well-being?: A preliminary investigation. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 233–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, E. C. (2001). Cultural influences on optimism and pessimism: Differences in Western and Eastern construals of the self. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 257–280). Washington: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y., Wang, P.-C., Li, H.-H., & Liu, Y.-C. (2011). Relations among depression, self-efficacy and optimism in a sample of nurses in Taiwan. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 769–776.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. (2006). A validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 421–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9, 361–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daukantaitė, D., & Zukauskiene, R. (2012). Optimism and subjective well-being: Affectivity plays a secondary role in the relationship between optimism and global life satisfaction in the middle-aged women. Longitudinal and cross-cultural findings. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo-Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well-being influences health, and future needed research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9, 133–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiori, K. L., McIlvane, J., Brown, E. E., & Antonucci, T. C. (2006). Social relations and depressive symptomatology: Self-efficacy as a mediator. Aging & Mental Health, 10, 227–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, M. W., Long, L. J., & Phillips, C. A. (2020). Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of the protective effects of positive expectancies. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 76, 329–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, M. W., & Lopez, S. J. (2009). Positive expectancies and mental health: Identifying the unique contributions of hope and optimism. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 548–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, M. W., Lopez, S. J., & Pressman, S. D. (2013). Optimism is universal: Exploring the presence and benefits of optimism in a representative sample of the World. Journal of Personality, 81, 429–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavrilov-Jerković, V., Jovanović, V., Žuljević, D., & Brdarić, D. (2014). When less is more: A short version of the personal optimism scale and the self-efficacy optimism scale. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 455–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavrilov-Jerković, V., Žuljević, D., Jovanović, V., & Brdarić, D. (2012). Ček lista životnih događaja [Life Events Checklist]. Unpublished manuscript. Novi Sad: University of Novi Sad.

  • Giltay, E. J., Zitman, F. G., & Kromhout, D. (2006). Dispositional optimism and the risk of depressive symptoms during 15 years of follow-up: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91, 45–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. P., Constantino, M. J., & Bruce, N. (2006). Are expectations still relevant for psychotherapy process and outcome? Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 657–678.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanssen, M. M., Vancleef, L. M., Vlaeyen, J. W., Hayes, A. F., Schouten, E. G., & Peters, M. L. (2015). Optimism, motivational coping and well-being: Evidence supporting the importance of flexible goal adjustment. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16, 1525–1537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamaker, E. L., Kuiper, R. M., & Grasman, R. P. P. P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20, 102–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinitz, K., Lorenz, T., Schulze, D., & Schorlemmer, J. (2018). Positive organizational behavior: Longitudinal effects on subjective well-being. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0198588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmreich, I., Kunzler, A., Chmitorz, A., Konig, J., Binder, H., Wessa, M., et al. (2017). Psychological interventions for resilience enhancement in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd012527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huppert, F. A. (2009). Psychological well-being: Evidence regarding its causes and consequences. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 1, 137–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jovanović, V. (2019). Measurement invariance of the Serbian version of the Satisfaction with Life Scale across age, gender, and time. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35, 555–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jovanović, V., & Gavrilov-Jerković, V. (2013). Dimensionality and validity of the Serbian version of the life orientation test-revised. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 771–782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jovanović, V., Gavrilov-Jerković, V., Žuljević, D., & Brdarić, D. (2014). Psihometrijska evaluacija Skale depresivnosti, anksioznosti i stresa-21 (DASS-21) na uzorku studenata u Srbiji [Psychometric evaluation of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales–21 (DASS–21) in a Serbian student sample]. Psihologija, 47, 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jovanović, V., & Joshanloo, M. (2019). The determinants of life satisfaction in Serbia: Findings from the Gallup World Poll. International Journal of Wellbeing, 9, 43–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., Erez, A., & Bono, J. A. (1998). The power of being positive: The relation between positive self-concept and job performance. Human Performance, 11, 167–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., Erez, A., Bono, J. E., & Thoresen, C. J. (2002). Are measures of self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of control, and generalized self-efficacy indicators of a common core construct? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 693–710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karademas, E. C. (2006). Self-efficacy, social support and well-being: the mediating role of optimism. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1281–1290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H., Schimmack, U., Oishi, S., & Tsutsui, Y. (2018). Extraversion and life satisfaction: A cross-cultural examination of student and nationally representative samples. Journal of Personality, 86, 604–618.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, E. M., Chiara, A. M., Liu, R. T., Jager-Hyman, S. G., Choi, J. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2017). Optimism and well-being: A prospective multi-method and multi-dimensional examination of optimism as a resilience factor following the occurrence of stressful life events. Cognition and Emotion, 31, 269–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lai, J. C. L. (2009). Dispositional optimism buffers the impact of daily hassles on mental health in Chinese adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 247–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazić, M., Gavrilov-Jerković, V., & Jovanović, V. (2017). Razvoj i psihometrijske karakteristike Ček-liste životnih događaja za procenu stresora kod studenata u Srbiji (SLEC-SF) [Development and psychometric characteristics of the Serbian life events check-list – student form (SLEC-SF)]. Primenjena psihologija, 10, 119–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazić, M., Jovanović, V., & Gavrilov-Jerković, V. (in press). The general self-efficacy scale: New evidence of structural validity, measurement invariance, and predictive properties in relationship to subjective well-being in Serbian samples. Current Psychology

  • Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Sydney: Psychology Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Gutiérrez-Doña, B., & Schwarzer, R. (2005a). General self-efficacy in various domains of human functioning: Evidence from five countries. International Journal of Psychology, 40, 80–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Mohamed, N. E., & Schwarzer, R. (2005b). Self-efficacy and social support predict benefit finding 12-months after cancer surgery: The mediating role of coping. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 10, 365–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005c). The general self-efficacy scale: Multicultural validation studies. The Journal of Psychology, 139, 439–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence–based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, 4, 339–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maddux, J. E. (2009). Self-efficacy: The power of believing you can. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 335–344). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magaletta, P. R., & Oliver, J. M. (1999). The hope construct, will, and ways: The relations with self-efficacy, optimism, and general well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 539–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Margolis, S., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2018). Cognitive outlooks and well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City: DEF Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mihić, Lj., Novović, Z., Čolović, P., & Smederevac, S. (2014). Serbian adaptation of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): Its facets and second-order structure. Psihologija, 47, 393–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monzani, D., Steca, P., Greco, A., D’Addario, M., Pancani, L., & Cappelletti, E. (2015). Effective pursuit of personal goals: The fostering effect of dispositional optimism on goal commitment and goal progress. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 203–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, S., Mergler, A. G., & Boman, P. (2014). Managing the transition: the role of optimism and self-efficacy for first-year Australian university students. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 24, 90–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus staistical software version 7.31. Los Angeles, 502 CA: Muthén & Muthén. Los Angeles, CA.

  • Palgi, Y., Shrira, A., Ben-Ezra, M., Cohen-Fridel, S., & Bodner, E. (2011). The relationships between daily optimism, daily pessimism, and affect differ in young and old age. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1294–1299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The Satisfaction With Life Scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 137–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rand, K. L. (2018). Hope, self-efficacy, and optimism. conceptual and empirical differences. In M. W. Gallagher & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The oxford handbook of hope (pp. 45–58). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An r package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implication of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research, 8, 23–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholz, U., Gutiérrez-Doña, B., Sud, S., & Schwarzer, R. (2002). Is general self-efficacy a universal construct? Psychometric findings from 25 countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18, 242–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schönfeld, P., Preusser, F., & Margraf, J. (2017). Costs and benefits of self-efficacy: Differences of the stress response and clinical implications. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 75, 40–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutte, N. S. (2014). The broaden and build process: Positive affect, ratio of positive to negative affect and general self-efficacy. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9, 66–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., Bäßler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schröder, K., & Zhang, J. X. (1997). The assessment of optimistic self-beliefs: Comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the General Self-efficacy Scale. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 69–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., Boehmer, S., Luszczynska, A., Mohamed, N. E., & Knoll, N. (2005). Dispositional self-efficacy as a personal resource factor in coping after surgery. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 807–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio (pp. 35–37). NFER-Nelson, Windsor: Causal and control beliefs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweizer, K., & Koch, W. (2001). The assessment of components of optimism by POSO-E. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 563–574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C. (2001). Optimism and attentional bias for negative and positive stimuli. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1334–1343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663–671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siu, O. L., Lu, C. Q., & Spector, P. E. (2007). Employee’s well-being in Greater China: the direct and moderating effects of general self-efficacy. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56, 288–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solberg Nes, L., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2006). Dispositional optimism and coping: a meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 235–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stajkovic, A. D. (2006). Development of a core confidence higher-order construct. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1208–1224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strobel, M., Tumasjan, A., & Spörrle, M. (2011). Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: Self-efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well-being. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52, 43–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suh, E. M., & Choi, S. (2018). Predictors of subjective well-being across cultures. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City: DEF Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. T., Britt, T. W., Odle-Dusseau, H., & Bliese, P. D. (2011). Dispositional optimism buffers combat veterans from the negative effects of warzone stress on mental health symptoms and work impairment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67, 866–880.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trouillet, R., Gana, K., Lourel, M., & Fort, I. (2009). Predicitive value of age for coping: the role of self-efficacy, social support satisfaction and perceived stress. Aging & Mental Health, 13, 357–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M., & Kam, C. C. S. (2016). Hope and general self-efficacy: Two measures of the same construct? The Journal of Psychology, 150, 543–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widaman, K. F., Ferrer, E., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Factorial invariance within longitudinal structural equation models: Measuring the same construct across time. Child Development Perspectives, 4, 10–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. M. (2010). Outcome expectancy and self-efficacy: Theoretical implications of an unresolved contradiction. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 417–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., & Scheier, M. F. (2003). Personality and quality of life: The importance of optimism and goal adjustment. Quality of Life Research, 12, 59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Miller, G. E., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. S. (2003). Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1494–1508.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 179006).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Dr Zorana Đinđića 2, Novi Sad, 21 000, Serbia

    Veljko Jovanović, Vesna Gavrilov-Jerković & Milica Lazić

  2. University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Dylan Molenaar

Authors
  1. Veljko Jovanović
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dylan Molenaar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vesna Gavrilov-Jerković
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Milica Lazić
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Veljko Jovanović.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 13 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jovanović, V., Molenaar, D., Gavrilov-Jerković, V. et al. Positive Expectancies and Subjective Well-Being: A Prospective Study Among Undergraduates in Serbia. J Happiness Stud 22, 1239–1258 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00271-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00271-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation