Abstract
Latinas experience multiple oppressions and poorer mental health due to their often triple minority status as poor, female, women of color. The present study examined whether identifying with both Mexican culture and the dominant culture (bicultural), having high ethnic identity, identifying with both feminine and masculine behavior (androgynous gender role), and perceiving greater family social support predicted life satisfaction and positive affect in low socioeconomic status, Mexican and Mexican American women (n = 194). Results indicated that greater ethnic identity and greater perceived family social support significantly predicted Mexican and Mexican American women’s life satisfaction. Greater ethnic identity, greater feminine gender identity, greater androgynous gender identity, and greater perceived family social support were significant predictors of positive affect. Furthermore, as expected, social support from family was the most significant predictor for both life satisfaction and positive affect. Implications of the results and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Almeida, J., Molnar, B. E., Kawachi, I., & Subramanian, S. V. (2009). Ethnicity and nativity status as determinants of perceived social support: Testing the concept of familism. Social Science and Medicine, 68, 1852–1858. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.029.
Anzaldua, G. (1987/1999). Borderlands la frontera: The new mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Books.
Arellano, L. M., & Ayala-Alcantar, C. (2004). Multiracial feminism for Chicana/o psychology. In R. J. Velasquez, L. M. Arellano, & B. W. McNeill (Eds.), The handbook of Chicana/o psychology and mental health (pp. 215–230). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baca Zinn, M. (1976). Chicanas: Power and control in the domestic sphere. De Colores, 2, 19–31.
Baca Zinn, M., & Dill, B. T. (1996). Theorizing difference from multiracial feminism. Feminist Studies, 22(2), 321–331.
Bates, L. (2013). State income limits for 2013. Retrieved from http://www.hcd.ca.gov/hpd/hrc/rep/state/inc2k13.pdf
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
Bem, S. L. (1975). Sex role adaptability: One consequence of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 634–643.
Bem, S. L. (1981a). Bem sex-role inventory: Professional manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Bem, S. L. (1981b). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364.
Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In A. M. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, model, and some new findings (pp. 9–25). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Bing, V. M., & Reid, P. T. (1996). Unknown women and unknown research: Consequences of color and class in feminist psychology. In N. R. Goldberger, J. M. Tarule, B. M. Clinchy, & M. F. Belenky (Eds.), Knowledge difference, and power: Essays inspired by women’s ways of knowing (pp. 175–202). New York: Basic Books.
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine.
Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135.
Brown, L. S. (2010). Feminist therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Canty-Mitchell, J., & Zimet, G. D. (2000). Psychometric properties of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support in urban adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 391–400. doi:10.1023/A:1005109522457.
Castillo, A. (1995). Massacre of the dreamers. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Castillo, L. G., Conoley, C. W., & Brossart, D. F. (2004). Acculturation, White marginalization, and family support as predictors of perceived distress in Mexican American female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 151–157. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.151.
Castillo, L. G., Perez, F. V., Castillo, R., & Ghosheh, M. R. (2010). Construction and initial validation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 23(2), 163–175. doi:10.1080/09515071003776036.
Chacon, M., Cohen, E., Camerena, M., Gonzalez, J., & Strover, S. (1985). Chicanas in California post-secondary education: A comparative study of barriers to program progress. Stanford, CA: Center for Chicano Research.
Cohen, S., & Willis, T. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis: A theoretical analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 110–157.
Comas-Diaz, L. (1991). Feminism and diversity in psychology. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 597–609.
Cuéllar, I. (2000). Acculturation and mental health: Ecological transactional relations of adjustment. In I. Cuéllar & F. A. Paniagua (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural mental health: Assessment and treatment of diverse populations (pp. 45-62). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Cuéllar, I., Bastida, E., & Braccio, S. M. (2004). Residency in the United States, subjective well-being, and depression in an older Mexican-origin sample. Journal of Aging and Health, 16, 447–466.
Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, G. D., & Walker, R. R. (1991). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: A confirmation study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 756–761.
Diaz-Guerrero, R. (1975). Psychology of the Mexican: Culture and personality. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.
Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103–157. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4_3.
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R., & Smith, H. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2009). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156. doi:10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y.
Espin, O. M. (1997). Latina realities essays on healing, migration, and sexuality. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Galanti, G. (2003). The Hispanic family and male–female relationships: An overview. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 14(3), 180–185. doi:10.1177/1043659603014003004.
Gil, R. M., & Vazquez, C. I. (1996). The Maria paradox: How Latinas can merge old world traditions with new world self-esteem. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
Golding, J. M. (1990). Division of household labor, strain, and depressive symptoms among Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic Whites. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14(1), 103–117.
Gonzalez, M., Giarrusso, R., & Takagi, E. (2007). Mexican immigrant and Mexican American elders: Life satisfaction, health, and acculturation. In Conference Papers—American Sociological Association (pp. 1–20).
Grimmell, D., & Stern, G. S. (1992). The relationship between gender role ideals and psychological well-being. Sex Roles, 27, 487–497.
Guinn, B., & Vincent, V. (2011). Life satisfaction attributes in Mexican American women. Tahperd Journal, 79, 18–42.
House, J. S., Umberson, D., & Landis, K. R. (1988). Structures and processes of social support. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 293–318.
Humphrey, N. D. (1944). The changing structure of the Detroit Mexican family: An index of acculturation. American Sociological Review, 9(6), 622–626.
Lang, J. G., Munoz, R. F., Bernal, G., & Sorensen, J. L. (1982). Quality of life and psychological well-being in a bicultural Latino community. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 4, 433–450. doi:10.1177/07399863820044002.
Leaper, C., & Valin, D. (1996). Predictors of Mexican American mothers’ and fathers’ attitudes toward gender equality. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18, 343–355.
Lopez, S. J., Prosser, E. C., Edwards, L. M., Magyar-Moe, J. L., Neufeld, J. E., & Rasmussen, H. N. (2002). Putting positive psychology in a multicultural context. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 700–714). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. M. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616–628. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.616.
Marin, G., & Marin, B. V. (1991). Research with Hispanic populations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Marin, G., Sabogal, F., Marin, B., Otero-Sabogal, R., & Perez-Stable, E. (1987). Development of a short acculturation scale for Hispanics. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9, 183–205.
Meehan, M., Durlak, J., & Brant, F. B. (1993). The relationship of social support to perceived control and subjective mental health in adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 49–55.
Molix, L., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2010). Predicting well-being among ethnic minorities: Psychological empowerment and group identity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(3), 513–533. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00585.x.
Napholz, L. (1994). Dysphoria among Hispanic working women: A research note. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 16, 500–509.
Padilla, A. M., Salgado de Snyder, N., Cervantes, R. C., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (1993). Self-regulation and risk-taking behavior: Hispanic perspectives. In L.P. Lipsitt & L.L. Mitnick (Eds.), Self-regulatory behavior and risk taking: Causes and consequences (pp. 89-106 ). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Phinney, J. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156–176. doi:10.1177/074355489272003.
Phinney, J., & Ong, A. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271.
Raffaelli, M., & Ontai, L. L. (2004). Gender socialization in Latino/a families: Results from two retrospective studies. Sex Roles, 50, 287–299.
Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149–152.
Reed-Sanders, D., Dodder, R. A., & Webster, L. (1985). The Bem Sex Role Inventory across three cultures. Journal of Social Psychology, 125(4), 523.
Rodriguez, N., Mira, C. B., Paez, N. D., & Myers, H. F. (2007). Exploring the complexities of familism and acculturation: Central constructs for people of Mexican origin. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 61–77. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9090-7.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
Sabogal, F., Marin, G., & Otero-Sabogal, R. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what doesn’t? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(4), 397–412.
Seligman, M. P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3–9). New York: Oxford University Press.
Solberg, V. S., & Villareal, P. (1997). Examination of self-efficacy, social support, and stress as predictors of psychological and physical distress among Hispanic college students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19(2), 182–201.
Stevens, E. P. (1973). Marianismo: The other face of machismo in Latin America. In A. Pescatello (Ed.), Female and male in Latin America: Essays (pp. 89–101). Pittsburg, PA: University of Pittsburg Press.
Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgment across cultures: Emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 482–493. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482.
Triandis, H. C. (2000). Cultural syndromes and subjective well-being. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective well-being (pp. 13–36). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Gonzalez-Backen, M. A., & Guimond, A. B. (2009). Latino adolescents’ ethnic identity: Is there a developmental progression and does growth in ethnic identity predict growth in self-esteem? Child Development, 80, 391–405. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01267.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. (2010). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2009. (Current Populations Reports, Series P60, No., 238). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Vazquez-Nuttall, E., Romero-Garcia, I., & De Leon, B. (1987). Sex roles and perceptions of femininity and masculinity of Hispanic women: A review of the literature. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 409–425.
Vera, E. M., Vacek, K., Coyle, L.D., Stinson, J., Mull, M., Doud, K., Buchheit, C., Gorman, C., Hewitt, A., Keene, C. Blackmon, S., & Langrehr, K. J. (2011). An examination of culturally relevant stressors, coping, ethnic identity, and subjective well-being in urban, ethnic minority adolescents. Professional School Counseling, 15(2), 55-66.
Watson, D. (2002). Positive affectivity. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 106–119). New York: Oxford University Press.
Yoon, E. (2011). Measuring ethnic identity in the ethnic identity scale and the multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 144–155. doi:10.1037/a0023361.
Zeff, S. B. (1982). A cross-cultural study of Mexican American, Black American, and White American women at a large urban university. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 4(2), 245–261. doi:10.1177/07399863820042007.
Zimet, G., Dahlem, N., Zimet, S., & Farley, G. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Diaz, T., Bui, N.H. Subjective Well-Being in Mexican and Mexican American Women: The Role of Acculturation, Ethnic Identity, Gender Roles, and Perceived Social Support. J Happiness Stud 18, 607–624 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9741-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9741-1