Abstract
Empirical evidence on the use of disciplinary practices across low- and middle-income countries remains limited and impedes the development of prevention practices. This study explores the disciplinary practices of parents in Kosovo using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS 5) collected in 2013 and 2014 through the household survey program supported by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Overall, 4127 household interviews were completed successfully, accounting for 5416 children aged 1–14. Respondents were asked about child discipline practices, including their attitudes toward violent and nonviolent discipline measures, and the association with sociodemographic correlates was analyzed. The results show that children in Kosovo are highly exposed to violent (61.4%) and nonviolent (31%) disciplinary practices, regardless of gender. In terms of sociodemographic correlates, children from urban areas and from the lowest wealth percentile seem to experience higher rates of violent discipline strategies. Mixed results were obtained regarding educational level of parents. Tolerant attitudes toward the use of physical violence were associated with increased odds ratios in the use of violent discipline practices, ranging from the lowest level of psychological aggression (OR = 2.75; 95% CI = 2.23–2.27) to the highest level of severe physical punishment (OR = 4.82; 95% CI = 3.68- 6.32). The study’s findings underline the urgent need to promote positive parenting practices through education and legislation to ensure a safe and nurturing environment for the healthy growth and development of children.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Universal Declaration on Human Rights; European Convention on Protection of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms and its protocols; International Convention for Civil and Political Rights and its Protocols, Framework Convention of the Council of Europe on Protection of National Minorities; Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination; Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Woman Discrimination; Convention on Children Rights; as well as the Convention against Torture and Treatments of other Cruel, Inhuman and Humiliating Punishments.
The data for Albania were from the MICS 3 round.
The data for Macedonia included only children aged 2–14 years old.
References
Ademi Shala, R., Hoxha, L., & Ateah, C. (2016). Delivering Kosovo’s first parenting program: Challenges, strategies and outcomes. Calgary: International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Retrieved on May 22, 2021 from https://positivedisciplineeveryday.com/presentationsonpdep/
Akmatov, M. K. (2011). Child abuse in 28 developing and transitional countries—Results from the multiple indicator cluster surveys. International Journal of Epidemiology. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyq168
Ashburn, K., Kerner, B., Ojamuge, D., & Lundgren, R. (2017). Evaluation of the responsible, engaged, and loving (REAL) father’s initiative on physical child punishment and intimate partner violence in Northern Uganda. Prevention Science, 18(7), 854–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0713-9
Balogun, P., Smulders, A., & Lindstrom, J. (2019). Impact evaluation of the positive discipline in everyday parenting programme (PDEP): Final report. Retrieved on November 22, 2020 from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/15458/pdf/impact_evaluation_of_the_positive_discipline_in_everyday_parenting_programme_2019.pdf
Baron, L., & Straus, M. A. (1989). Rape and its relation to social disorganization, pornography and inequality in the USA. Med. and L., 8, 209. Save the Children Sweeden/FCC Swedish Development AB.
Beatriz, E., & Salhi, C. (2019). Child discipline in low-and middle-income countries: Socioeconomic disparities at the household-and country-level. Child Abuse and Neglect, 94, 104023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104023
Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological integration. American Psychologist, 35(4), 320. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.4.320
Bylykbashi, S. (2020). The sustainability of child protection services in the Republic of Kosovo.
Cappa, C., & Dam, H. (2013). Prevalence of and risk factors for violent disciplinary practices at home in Viet Nam. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(3), 497–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505215
Cappa, C., & Khan, S. M. (2011). Understanding caregivers’ attitudes towards physical punishment of children: Evidence from low- and middle-income countries. Child Abuse and Neglect, 35, 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.003
Catani, C., Schauer, E., & Neuner, F. (2008). Beyond individual war trauma: Domestic violence against children in Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00062.x
Cislaghi, B., & Heise, L. (2018). Four avenues of normative influence: A research agenda for health promotion in low and mid-income countries. Health Psychology, 37(6), 562. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000618
Cuartas, J., McCoy, D. C., Rey-Guerra, C., Britto, P. R., Beatriz, E., & Salhi, C. (2019). Early childhood exposure to non-violent discipline and physical and psychological aggression in low-and middle-income countries: National, regional, and global prevalence estimates. Child Abuse and Neglect, 92, 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.03.021
Daniel, C. (2015). Changing childrearing beliefs among indigenous rural-to-urban migrants in El Alto, Bolivia. Sociological Forum, 30(4), 949–970.
Dietz, T. L. (2000). Disciplining children: Characteristics associated with the use of corporal punishment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(12), 1529–1542. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00213-1
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptative processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.3
Dix, T. (1993). Attributing dispositions to children: An interactional analysis of attribution in socialization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(5), 633–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167293195014
Durrant, J. E. (2008). Physical punishment, culture, and rights: Current issues for professionals. Journal of Deviant Behaviors Pediatry, 29, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a
Eamon, M. K. (2001). Antecedents and socioemotional consequences of physical punishment on children in two-parent families. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(6), 787–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00239-3
Eldeeb, N., Halileh, S., Alyafei, K. A., Ghandour, R., Dargham, S., Giacaman, R., & Mahfoud, Z. (2016). Child discipline in Qatar and Palestine: A comparative study of ICAST-R. Child Abuse and Neglect, 61, 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.006
Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (2005). Explaining corporal punPinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, Gishment of children: A cross-cultural study. American Anthropologist, 107, 609–619. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2005.107.4.609
Farnsworth, N., Qosaj- Mustafa, A., Banjska, I., Berisha, A., & Morina, D. (2015). No more excuses an analysis of attitudes, incidence, and institutional responses to domestic violence in Kosovo. Kosovo Women’s Network. Prishtina: Kosovo Women’s Network. Retrieved from https://womensnetwork.org/publications/no-more-excuses-an-analysis-of-attitudes-incidence-and-institutional-responses-to-domestic-violence-in-kosovo/
Farnsworth, N., & Qosaj- Mustafa, A. (2008). Security begins at home. Research to Inform the First National Strategy and Action Plan against Domestic Violence in Kosovo. Kosovo Women’s Network. Prishtina: Kosovo Women’s Network. Retrieved on November 29, 2020 from https://womensnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/20130120165404373.pdf
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Spanking, corporal punishment and negative long-term outcomes: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.002
Gagne, M. H., Tourigny, M., Joly, J., & Pouliot-Lapointe, J. (2007). Predictors of adult attitudes toward corporal punishment of children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(10), 1285–1304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507304550
Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–579.
Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73, 31–56.
Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191
Gershoff, E. T., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Zelli, A., Deater- Deckard, K., et al. (2010). Parent discipline practices in an international sample: Associations with child behaviors and moderation by perceived normativeness. Child Development, 81(2), 487–502. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01409.x
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2013). April 2013 Review of research on the effects of corporal punishment: working paper. Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children.
Graziano, A. M., & Namaste, K. A. (1990). Parental use of physical force in child discipline: A survey of 679 college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(4), 449–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626090005004002
Kelmendi, K., Duraku, Z. H., & Jemini-Gashi, L. (2019). Coexistence of intimate partner violence and child maltreatment among adolescents in Kosovo. Journal of Family Violence, 34(5), 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-00034-y
Kelmendi, K. (2015). Domestic violence against women in Kosovo: A qualitative study of women’s experiences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(4), 680–702. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514535255
Hoff, E., Laursen, B., Tardif, T., & Bornstein, M. (2002). Socioeconomic status and parenting. Handbook of parenting Volume 2: Biology and ecology of parenting, 8(2), 231–52.
Lansford, J. E., & Deater- Deckard, K. (2012). Childrearing discipline and violence in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01676.x
Lansford, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2008). Cultural norms for adult corporal punishment of children and societal rates of endorsement and use of violence. Parenting Science and Practice, 8, 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190802204843
Lansford, J. E., Alampay, L. P., Al-Hassan, S., Bacchini, D., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., et al. (2010). Corporal punishment of children in nine countries as a function of child gender and parent gender. International Journal of Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/672780
Lansford, J. E., Deater-Deckard, K., Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Bradley, R. H. (2014). Attitudes justifying domestic violence predict endorsement of corporal punishment and physical and psychological aggression towards children: A study in 25 low- and middle- income countries. Journal of Pediatrics, 164(5), 1208–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.11.060
Lansford, J. E., Zietz, S., Putnick, D. L., Deater-Deckard, K., Bradley, R. H., Costa, M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2020). Men’s and women’s views on acceptability of husband-to-wife violence and use of corporal punishment with children in 21 low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse and Neglect, 108, 104692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104692
Larzelere, R. E., & Kuhn, B. R. (2005). Comparing child outcomes of physical punishment and alternative disciplinary tactics: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child Family Psychological Review, 8(1), 1–37.
Lau, J. T., Kim, J. H., Tsui, H. Y., Cheung, A., Lau, M., & Yu, A. (2005). The relationship between physical maltreatment and substance use among adolescents: A survey of 95,788 adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(2), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.08.005
Law on Child Protection. (2019). NR. 06/L-084. Retrieved on November 29, 2020 from: https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=20844
Lokot, M., Bhatia, A., Kenny, L., & Cislaghi, B. (2020). Corporal punishment, discipline and social norms: A systematic review in low-and middle-income countries. Aggression and Violent Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101507
Maker, A. H., Shah, P. V., & Agha, Z. (2005). Child physical abuse: Prevalence, characteristics, predictors, and beliefs about parent-child violence in South Asian, Middle Eastern, East Asian, and Latina women in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(11), 1406–1428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505278713
Mayisela, S. (2018). “Malicious to the skin” The internalisation of corporal punishment as a teaching and a disciplinary tool among South African teachers. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 25(4), 293–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/10749039.2018.1519833
McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Olson, A. L., Forehand, R., Massari, C., & Zens, M. S. (2007). Harsh discipline and child problem behaviors: The roles of positive parenting and gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22(4), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9070-6
Mehlhausen-Hassoen, D. (2019). Gender-specific differences in corporal punishment and children’s perceptions of their mothers’ and fathers’ parenting. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519842172
Pace, G. T., Lee, S. J., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2019). Spanking and young children’s socioemotional development in low-and middle-income countries. Child Abuse and Neglect, 88, 84–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.003
Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Zelli, A. (2001). Discipline responses: Influences of parents’ socioeconomic status, ethnicity, beliefs about parenting, stress, and cognitive-emotional processes. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.14.3.380
Ryan, R. M., Kalil, A., Ziol-Guest, K. M., & Padilla, C. (2016). Socioeconomic gaps in parents’ discipline strategies from 1988 to 2011. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-0720
Saile, R., Ertl, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2014). Does war contribute to family violence against children? Findings from a two-generational multi-informant study in Northern Uganda. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38(1), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.007
Sanders, M. R., Cann, W., & Markie‐Dadds, C. (2003). The Triple P‐Positive Parenting Programme: a universal population‐level approach to the prevention of child abuse. Child Abuse Review: Journal of the British Association for the Study and Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 12(3), 155–171.https://doi.org/10.1002/car.798
Sanders, M. R. (2008). Triple P-Positive Parenting Program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.506
Ssenyonga, J., Muwonge, C. M., & Hecker, T. (2019a). Prevalence of family violence and mental health and their relation to peer victimization: A representative study of adolescent students in Southwestern Uganda. Child Abuse and Neglect, 98, 104194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104194
Ssenyonga, J., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M., & Hecker, T. (2019b). Stress and positive attitudes towards violent discipline are associated with school violence by Ugandan teachers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 93, 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.012
Stark, L., Seff, I., Asghar, K., Roth, D., Bakamore, T., MacRae, M., & Falb, K. L. (2018). Building caregivers’ emotional, parental and social support skills to prevent violence against adolescent girls: Findings from a cluster randomised controlled trial in Democratic Republic of Congo. BMJ Global Health. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000824
Stein, M., Steenkamp, D., & Tangi, F. (2019). Relations of corporal punishment to academic results and achievements in secondary schools in Tanzania. International Journal of Education and Research, 7(8), 85–104.
Straus, M. A. (2010). Prevalence, societal cues and trends in corporal punishment by parents in world perspective. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73(2), 1–30.
Straus, M. A., & Stewart, J. H. (1999). Physical punishment by American parents: National data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, concerning child and family characteristics. Clinical Child and Family Review, 2, 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021891529770
Straus, M. A., & Yodanis, C. L. (1996). Corporal punishment in adolescence and physical assaults on spouses in later life: What accounts for the link? Journal of Marriage and the Family. https://doi.org/10.2307/353973
Straus, M. A. (2000). Corporal punishment and primary prevention of physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(9), 1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00180-0
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent-child conflict tactics scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(4), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9
Turner, H. A., & Muller, P. A. (2004). Long-term effects of child corporal punishment on depressive symptoms in young adults: Potential moderators and mediators. Journal of Family Issues, 25(6), 761–782. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X03258313
UNICEF. (2010). Child disciplinary practices at home: evidence from a range of low- and middle-income countries. UNICEF. NY: UNICEF.
UNICEF (2014). Hidden in plain sight. A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York: UNICEF.
UNICEF. (2015). Preliminary findings from multiple indicator cluster survey (MICS) 2013–2014. Retrieved on November 22, 2020 from: https://www.unicef.org/kosovoprogramme/reports/multiple-indicator-cluster-survey-2013-2014
United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2006). General Comment No. 8 (2006): The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment, UN document CrC/C/GC/8, Office.
United Nations (UN). (2006). UN Secretary General’s Study on Violence against Children.
UNICEF. (2016). UNICEF global data set. Available at https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/violence/violent-discipline/
Vittrup, B., & Holden, G. W. (2010). Children’s assessments of corporal punishment and other disciplinary practices: The role of age, race, SES, and exposure to spanking. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(3), 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2009.11.003
Vittrup, B., Holden, G. W., & Buck, J. (2006). Attitudes predict the use of physical punishment: A prospective study of the emergence of disciplinary practices. Pediatrics, 117(6), 2055–2064. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2204
Wissow, L. S. (2001). Ethnicity, income, and parenting contexts of physical punishment in a national sample of families with young children. Child Maltreatment, 6(2), 118–129.https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559501006002004
Waterston, T. (2000). Giving guidance on child discipline. British Medical Journal, 320, 261–262. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7230.261
Walker, C. S., Stearns, M., & McKinney, C. (2021). Effect of parental corporal punishment on endorsement of its use: Moderated mediation by parent gender and attitudes toward corporal punishment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13-14), 6745–6768. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518819878
Xu, X., Tung, Y., & Dunaway, R. G. (2000). Cultural, human, and social capital as determinants of corporal punishment: Toward an integrated theoretical model. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 603–630. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626000015006004
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kelmendi, K., Arënliu, A. & Halimi, T. Child Discipline Practices in Kosovo: Attitudes and Sociodemographic Correlates. J Fam Viol 37, 1111–1124 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00321-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00321-1