Abstract
Communication technologies, including cell phones, social media, and location tracking services, can be used to perpetrate abuse against current or former intimate partners. A growing literature examines these behaviors in adolescent and college samples, yet very little research has investigated cyber abuse prevalence and risk factors in broader samples of adults. The present study examines whether in-person forms of intimate partner aggression (IPA) and important IPA risk factors are associated with cyber psychological abuse (CPA) in a sample of adults (N = 243; Mean age = 33.49, SD = 11.31) who reported being in a romantic relationship within the last 12 months and were recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Participants completed assessments of CPA, physical assault, emotional abuse, maltreatment history, attachment insecurity, jealousy, emotion dysregulation, substance abuse, and relationship functioning. The Cyber Psychological Abuse scales significantly and positively correlated with physical assault and emotional abuse. Multivariate risk factor analyses accounted for 40% and 30% of the variance in CPA perpetration and victimization, respectively. Behavioral jealousy, relationship discord, and extent of daily cell phone use had significant unique associations with both CPA perpetration and victimization. The results indicate that CPA is highly prevalent among adults, strongly associated with other forms of IPA, and correlated with both IPA risk factors and extent of technology use. Findings support the further development of efforts to prevent CPA, to educate potential CPA victims, and to assess and address CPA among adults who engage in or experience in-person forms of partner abuse.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, E. S., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., Loew, B., & Markman, H. J. (2012). The effects of marriage education for army couples with a history of infidelity. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(1), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026742
Archer, J. (2000). Sex difference in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651
Babor, T.F., De La Fuente, J.R., Saunders J., & Grant, M. (1991). The Alcohol Use Disorders. Care. WHO Publication No. 89.4. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Bennett, D. C., Guran, E. L., Ramos, M. C., & Margolin, G. (2011). College students’ electronic victimization in friendships and dating relationships: Anticipated distress and associations with risky behaviors. Violence and Victims, 26(4), 410–429. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.26.4.410
Bernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., & Foote, J. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(8), 1132–1136. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132
Black, M., Basile, K., Breiding, M., Smith, S., Walters, M., Merrick, M., Chen, J., & Stevens, M. (2011). National intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2010 summary report. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/nisvs_report2010-a.pdfhttp://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11990/250
Borrajo, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., Pereda, N., & Calvete, E. (2015). The development and validation of the cyber dating abuse questionnaire among young couples. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 358–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.063
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Volume II: Separation, anxiety and anger. In Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger (pp. 1–429). The Hogarth press and the institute of psycho-analysis.
Breiding, M. J., Chen, J., & Black, M. C. (2014). Intimate partner violence in the United States--2010. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Caetano, R., Field, C. A., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., & McGrath, C. (2005). The 5-year course of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(9), 1039–1057. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505277783
Cafferky, B. M., Mendez, M., Anderson, J. R., & Stith, S. M. (2018). Substance use and intimate partner violence: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Violence, 8(1), 110–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000074.supp
Caldwell, J. E., Swan, S. C., & Woodbrown, V. D. (2012). Gender differences in intimate partner violence outcomes. Psychology of Violence, 2(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026296
Cannon, C., Ferreira, R. J., & Buttell, F. (2019). Critical race theory, parenting, and intimate partner violence: Analyzing race and gender. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(5), 590–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731518784181
Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
Caridade, S., & Braga, T. (2020). Youth cyber dating abuse: A meta-analysis of risk and protective factors. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.5817/cp2020-3-2
Caridade, S., & Dinis, M. A. P. (2020). Cyber and offline dating abuse in a Portuguese sample: Prevalence and context of abuse. Behavioral Sciences, 10(10), 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs10100152
Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623
Chmielewski, M., & Kucker, S. C. (2019). An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(4), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619875149
Coyne, S. M., Stockdale, L., Busby, D., Iverson, B., & Grant, D. M. (2012). “I luv u:!”: A descriptive study of the media use of individuals in romantic relationships. Family Relations, 60(2), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2010.00639.x
Crane, C. A., Umehira, N., Berbary, C., & Easton, C. J. (2018). Problematic alcohol use as a risk factor for cyber aggression within romantic relationships. The American Journal on Addictions, 27(5), 400–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12736
Dank, M., Lachman, P., Zweig, J. M., & Yahner, J. (2014). Dating violence experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(5), 846–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9975-8
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and applications. Sage Publications.
Dutton, D. G., & White, K. R. (2012). Attachment insecurity and intimate partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(5), 475–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.07.003
Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E., Chen, H., & Johnson, J. G. (2003). Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: a 20-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 741. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.741
Feinstein, B. A., Bhatia, V., & Davila, J. (2014). Rumination mediates the association between cyber-victimization and depressive symptoms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(9), 1732–1746. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513511534
Fraley, R. C., Waller, N. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 350–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.350
Franks, M. A., (2015). Drafting an effective “revenge porn” law: A guide for legislatures. https://www.cybercivilrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Guide-for-Legislators-9.16.pdf
Gormley, B. (2005). An adult attachment theoretical perspective of gender symmetry in intimate partner violence. Sex Roles, 52(11–12), 785–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-4199-3
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2003). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:joba.0000007455.08539.94
Hancock, K., Keast, H., & Ellis, W. (2017). The impact of cyber dating abuse on self-esteem: The mediating role of emotional distress. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 11(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2017-2-2
Hendrick, S. S. (1988). A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/352430
Holtzworth-Munroe, A., Stuart, G. L., & Hutchinson, G. (1997). Violent versus nonviolent husbands: Differences in attachment patterns, dependency, and jealousy. Journal of Family Psychology, 11(3), 314–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.11.3.314
Jenkins, N., & Saiz, C. C. (1995). The Communication Skills Test. Unpublished measure, University of Denver.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017
Leisring, P. A., & Giumetti, G. W. (2014). Sticks and stones may break my bones, but abusive text messages also hurt: Development and validation of the cyber psychological abuse (CPA) scale. Partner Abuse, 5(3), 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.5.3.323
Leisring, P. A., Farrell, D. M., & Scotto, D. M. (2019). Cyber abuse in romantic relationships. In R. Geffner, J. W. White, L. K. Hamberger, A. Rosenbaum, V. Vaughan-Eden, & V. I. Vieth (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal violence and abuse across the lifespan.
Li, S., Zhao, F., & Yu, G. (2019). Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.012
Lu, Y., Van Ouytsel, J., Walrave, M., Ponnet, K., & Temple, J. R. (2018). Cross-sectional and temporal associations between cyber dating abuse victimization and mental health and substance use outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 65, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.02.009
Marganski, A., & Melander, L. (2018). Intimate partner violence victimization in the cyber and real world: Examining the extent of cyber aggression experiences and its association with in-person dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(7), 1071–1095. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515614283
Melander, L. A. (2010). College students’ perceptions of intimate partner cyber harassment. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 13(3), 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2009.0221
Melander, L. A., & Marganski, A. J. (2020). Cyber and in-person intimate partner violence victimization: Examining maladaptive psychosocial and behavioral correlates. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 14(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.5817/cp2020-1-1
Moore, T. M., Elkins, S. R., McNulty, J. K., Kivisto, A. J., & Handsel, V. A. (2011). Alcohol use and intimate partner violence perpetration among college students: Assessing the temporal association using electronic diary technology. Psychology of Violence, 1(4), 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025077
Murphy, C. M., Meyer, S. L., & O’Leary, K. D. (1994). Dependency characteristics of partner assaultive men. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 729–735. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.4.729
Murphy, C. M., Hoover, S. A., & Taft, C. T. (1999). The Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse: Factor structure and subscale validity. Paper presented at the 15th Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, , Canada.
Norwood, A., & Murphy, C. M. (2012). What forms of abuse correlate with PTSD symptoms in partners of men being treated for intimate partner violence? Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 596–604. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025232
Parrott, D. J., & Eckhardt, C. I. (2018). Effects of alcohol on human aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.023
Pew Research Center, (2021). Social media fact sheet. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/
Pfeiffer, S. M., & Wong, P. T. P. (1989). Multidimensional jealousy. Journal of Social and Personal Relationship, 6(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540758900600203
Reed, E., Silverman, J. G., Ickovics, J. R., Gupta, J., Welles, S. L., Santana, M. C., & Raj, A. (2010). Experiences of racial discrimination & relation to violence perpetration and gang involvement among a sample of urban African American men. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 12(3), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-008-9159-x
Reyner, J. C. (2018). Partner aggression in a digital age: Prevalence and predictors of cyber psychological abuse. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, Baltimore County]. [ProQuest Information & Learning]. In Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering (Vol. 78, Issue 10–B(E)).
Rocha-Silva, T., Nogueira, C., & Rodrigues, L. (2021). Intimate abuse through technology: A systematic review of scientific constructs and behavioral dimensions. Computers in Human Behavior, 122, 106,861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106861
Selzer, M. L. (1971). The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test: The quest for a new diagnostic instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127(12), 1653–1658. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.127.12.1653
Shorey, R. C., Brasfield, H., Febres, J., & Stuart, G. L. (2011). An examination of the association between difficulties with emotion regulation and dating violence perpetration. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 20(8), 870–885. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2011.629342
Short, E., & McMurray, I. (2009). Mobile phone harassment: An exploration of students’ perceptions of intrusive texting behavior. Human Technology, 5(2), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.200911234469
Skinner, H. A. (1982). The Drug Abuse Screening Test. Addictive Behaviors, 7(4), 363–371. https://doi.org/10.1037/t03979-000
Spencer, C. M., Keilholtz, B. M., & Stith, S. M. (2020). The association between attachment styles and physical intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis. Family Process. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12545
Spinhoven, P., Hickendorff, M., Bernstein, D. P., Penninx, B. W., Hernert, A. M., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014). Childhood trauma questionnaire: factor structure, measurement invariance and validity across emotional disorders. Psychological Assessment, 26(3), 717–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000002
Stith, S. M., Rosen, K. H., Middleton, K. A., Busch, A. L., Lundeberg, K., & Carlton, R. P. (2000). The intergenerational transmission of spouse abuse: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62(3), 640–654. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00640.x
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001
Strawhun, J., Adams, N., & Huss, M. T. (2013). The assessment of cyberstalking: An expanded examination including social networking, attachment, jealousy, and anger in relation to violence and abuse. Violence and Victims, 28(4), 715–730. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.11-00145
Taylor, S., & Xia, Y. (2018). Cyber partner abuse: A systematic review. Violence and Victims, 33(6), 983–1011. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.33.6.983
Temple, J. R., Choi, H. J., Brem, M., Wolford-Clevenger, C., Stuart, G. L., Peskin, M. F., & Elmquist, J. (2016). The temporal association between traditional and cyber dating abuse among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(2), 340–349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0380-3
Van Ouytsel, J., Van Gool, E., Walrave, M., Ponnet, K., & Peeters, E. (2017). Sexting: adolescents’ perceptions of the applications used for, motives for, and consequences of sexting. Journal of Youth Studies, 20(4), 446–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0380-3
Vaughn, M., & Matyastik Bauer, M. E. (1999). Reliability and validity of the relationship assessment scale. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/019261899262023
Watkins, L. E., Maldonado, R. C., & DiLillo, D. (2018). The cyber aggression in relationships scale: A new multidimensional measure of technology-based intimate partner aggression. Assessment, 25(5), 608–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116665696
Wolford-Clevenger, C., Zapor, H., Brasfield, H., Febres, J., Elmquist, J., Brem, M., Shorey, R. C., & Stuart, G. L. (2016). An examination of the Partner Cyber Abuse Questionnaire in a college student sample. Psychology of Violence, 6(1), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039442
Zapor, H., Wolford-Clevenger, C., Elmquist, J., Febres, J., Shorey, R. C., Brasfield, H., Leisring, P. A., & Stuart, G. L. (2017). Psychological aggression committed through technology: a study with dating college students. Partner Abuse, 8(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.8.2.127
Zweig, J. M., Dank, M., Yahner, J., & Lachman, P. (2013). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1063–1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9922-8
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This paper is based on a dissertation completed by the first author (Reyner, 2018).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mahoney, J.C., Farrell, D.M. & Murphy, C.M. Prevalence and Predictors of Cyber Psychological Abuse among Adults. J Fam Viol 37, 151–163 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00317-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00317-x