Abstract
Guanxi is important for career and organizational success in Chinese societies. Although guanxi has received a lot of research attention, most studies explore business outcomes rather than guanxi itself, meaning that many guanxi measures are ad hoc or assess static guanxi ties instead of guanxi quality, which is inherently dynamic. We analyzed existing measures and conceptual models of workplace guanxi to provide a foundation for developing the 15-item guanxi quality scale (GQS) as an effective and accurate way to operationalize evaluation of guanxi quality in the workplace. We demonstrated that guanxi quality is best represented with three dimensions: reciprocal favor (renqing), affection (ganqing), and trust (xinren), and that reciprocal favor encompasses face (mianzi). We also demonstrated the incremental validity of the GQS over two measures of guanxi quality with respect to 3 outcome variables: commitment, trust in the partner’s organization, and satisfaction. We discuss application of the GQS in the context of boundary spanner relations, which have been highlighted in the literature due to their potential for corruption. By grounding our measure squarely in past research and resolving conflicting conceptualizations in the literature, we expect that the GQS can provide a unified starting point for future investigation of workplace guanxi.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
05 August 2021
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09765-0
References
Ambler, T., Styles, C., & Wang, X. (1999). The effect of channel relationships and guanxi on the performance of inter-province export ventures in the People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 16(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8116(98)00011-1
Anderson, A., & Lee, E. (2008). From tradition to modern: Attitudes and applications of guanxi in Chinese entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15(4), 775–787. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626000810917852
Anderson, J., & Gerbing, D. W. (1991). Predicting the performance of measures in a confirmatory factor analysis with a pretest assessment of their substantive validities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5), 732–740. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.5.732
Armstrong, R. W., & Tan, B. S. (2000). Corporate-customer satisfaction in the banking industry of Singapore. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 18(3), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1108/02652320010339617
Bagozzi, R. P., Yi, Y., & Phillips, L. W. (1991). Assessing construct validity in organizational research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(3), 421–458. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393203
Bearden, W. O., Money, R. B., & Nevins, J. L. (2006). A measure of long-term orientation: Development and validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(3), 456–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070306286706
Bedford, O. (2011). Guanxi-building in the workplace: A dynamic process model of working and backdoor guanxi. Journal of Business Ethics, 104(1), 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0895-9
Bedford, O. (2016). Crossing boundaries: An exploration of business socializing (ying chou for guanxi) in a Chinese society. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315596161
Bedford, O. (2019). How does trust relate to guanxi in the Chinese workplace? An integrated dynamic model. In K.-H. Yeh (Ed.), Asian Indigenous Psychologies in the Global Context (pp. 223–247). Palgrave Macmillan.
Bedford, O. (2021). The relation between guanxi and interpersonal trust in the workplace. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science.
Bedford, O., & Hwang, S.-L. (2011). Flower drinking and masculinity in Taiwan. Journal of Sex Research, 48(1), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903230046
Bedford, O., & Hwang, S.-L. (2013). Building relationships for business in Taiwanese hostess clubs: The psychological and social processes of guanxi development. Gender, Work & Organization, 20(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2011.00576.x
Burt, R. S., Bian, Y., & Opper, S. (2018). More or less guanxi: Trust is 60% network context, 10% individual difference. Social Networks, 54, 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2017.12.001
Buttery, E. A., & Wong, W. H. (1999). The development of a guanxi framework. Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 17, 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1108/02634509910271605
Cao, Q., Baker, J., & Schniederjans, D. (2014). Bullwhip effect reduction and improved business performance through guanxi: An empirical study. International Journal of Production Economics, 158, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2014.07.030
Carpenter, S. (2018). Ten steps in scale development and reporting: A guide for researchers. Communication Methods and Measures, 12(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2017.1396583
Chan, S.-J., & Lin, L.-W. (2015). Massification of higher education in Taiwan: Shifting pressure from admission to employment. Higher Education Policy, 28(1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2014.33
Chen, C. C., Chen, X. P., & Huang, S. (2013). Chinese guanxi: An integrative review and new directions for future research. Management and Organization Review, 9(1), 167–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/more.12010
Chen, Y., Friedman, R., Yu, E., Fang, W., & Lu, X. (2009). Supervisor-subordinate guanxi: Developing a three-dimensional model and scale. Management and Organization Review, 5(3), 375–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2009.00153.x
Chiu, T.-S., Chih, W.-H., Ortiz, J., & Wang, C.-Y. (2018). The contradiction of trust and uncertainty from the viewpoint of swift guanxi. Internet Research, 28(3), 716–745. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-06-2017-0233
Chua, R., Morris, M. W., & Ingram, P. (2009). Guanxi vs networking: Distinctive configurations of affect- and cognition-based trust in the networks of Chinese vs American managers. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(3), 490–508. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400422
Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224377901600110
Comrey, A., & Lee, H. (2013). A first course in factor analysis. Psychology Press.
Costello, A., & Osborne, J. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assesment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
Dimitrov, D. M. (2014). Statistical methods for validation of assessment scale data in counseling and related fields. Wiley.
Fan, Y. (2002). Questioning guanxi: Definition, classification and implications. International Business Review, 11(5), 543–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(02)00036-7
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Fu, P. P., Tsui, A. S., & Dess, G. G. (2006). The dynamics of guanxi in Chinese hightech firms: Implications for knowledge management and decision making. Management International Review, 46(3), 277–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-006-0048-z
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
Green, S. B. (1991). How many subjects does it take to do a regression analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(3), 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2603_7
Hair, J. F., Black, B., Babin, B., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819800100106
Hitt, M. A., Lee, H. U., & Yucel, E. (2002). The importance of social capital to the management of multinational enterprises: Relational networks among Asian and Western firms. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(2,3), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016247920461
Hong, C. H., Zhu, D.-S., & White, L. P. (2013). Colleague guanxi intensity: Scale development and validation. Journal of Management & Organization, 19(6), 756–778. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2014.14
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.21427/D7CF7R
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Huang, W.-Y., Huang, C.-Y., & Dubinsky, A. J. (2014). The impact of guanxi on ethical perceptions: The case of Taiwanese salespeople. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 21(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1051712X.2014.857499
Huang, Y. (2008). The role of third-party mediation and face and favor in executive-legislative relations and conflict. Asian Journal of Communication, 18(3), 239–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292980802207249
Hwang, K.-K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. The American Journal of Sociology, 4, 944–974.
Jackson, D., Gillaspy, J.-A., & Purc-Stephenson, R. (2009). Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: An overview and some recommendations. Psychological Methods, 14(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014694
Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: A researcher’s guide. Sage.
Kim, H.-Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52–54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52
Kipnis, A. B. (1997). Producing guanxi: Sentiment, self, and subculture in a North China village. Duke University.
Kline, R. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Guilford Publications.
Ledeneva, A. (2008). Blat and guanxi: Informal practices in Russia and China. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50(01), 118–144. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417508000078
Lee, D. Y., & Dawes, P. L. (2005). Guanxi, trust, and long-term orientation in Chinese business markets. Journal of International Marketing, 13(2), 28–56. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.13.2.28.64860
Leung, T. K. P., Lai, K., Chan, R. Y. K., & Wong, Y. H. (2005). The roles of xinyong and guanxi in Chinese relationship marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 39(5/6), 528–559. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560510590700
Lewis, J. D., & Weigert, A. (1985). Trust as a social reality. Social Forces, 63(4), 967–985. https://doi.org/10.2307/2578601
Luo, J.-D. (2005). Particularistic trust and general trust: A network analysis in Chinese organizations. Management & Organization Review, 1(3), 437–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2005.00022.x
Luo, J. D. (2011). Guanxi revisited: An exploratory study of familiar ties in a Chinese workplace. Management and Organization Review, 7(2), 329–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00230.x
Luo, X., Griffith, D. A., Liu, S. S., & Shi, Y. Z. (2004). The effects of customer relationships and social capital on firm performance: A Chinese business illustration. Journal of International Marketing, 12(4), 25–45.
Luo, Y. (2008). The changing Chinese culture and business behavior: The perspective of intertwinement between guanxi and corruption. International Business Review, 17(2), 188–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2008.02.002
Mann, S. (2000). The male bond in Chinese history and culture. American Historical Review, 105(5), 1600–1614. https://doi.org/10.2307/2652032
Mao, Y., Peng, K., & Wong, C.-S. (2012). Indigenous research on Asia: In search of the emic components of guanxi. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 29(4), 1143–1168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-012-9317-5
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320–341. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2
McAllister, D. J. (1995). Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 24–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/256727
Migge, T., Kiffin-Petersen, S. A., & Purchase, S. (2020). When Western measures meet Eastern perspectives: A prototyping analysis of xinren in buyer-seller relationships. Industrial Marketing Management, 91, 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2020.08.019
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Peng, M. W., & Luo, Y. (2000). Managerial ties and firm performance in a transition economy: The nature of a micro-macro link. Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 486–501. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556406
Rajaobelina, L., & Bergeron, J. (2009). Antecedents and consequences of buyer-seller relationship quality in the financial services industry. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 27(5), 359–380. https://doi.org/10.1108/02652320910979889
Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(9), 677. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.677
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5–12 (BETA). Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Shou, Z., Guo, R., Zhang, Q., & Su, C. (2011). The many faces of trust and guanxi behavior: Evidence from marketing channels in China. Industrial Marketing Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2010.12.006
Song, F., Cadsby, C. B., & Bi, Y. (2012). Trust, reciprocity, and guanxi in China: An experimental investigation. Management & Organization Review, 8(2), 397–421. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00272.x
Su, C., & Littlefield, J. E. (2001). Entering guanxi: A business ethical dilemma in Mainland China. Journal of Business Ethics, 33(3), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017570803846
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Pearson, Ally & Bacon.
Wang, C. L., Siu, N. Y. M., & Barnes, B. R. (2008). The significance of trust and renqing in the long-term orientation of Chinese business-to-business relationships. Industrial Marketing Management, 37(7), 819–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.01.008
Wang, J., & Murphy, P. (2010). In the office vs. outside the office: Supervisor–subordinate guanxi maintenance among Chinese and Western managers in China. Chinese Journal of Communication, 3(2), 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/17544751003740342
Warren, D. E., Dunfee, T. W., & Li, N. (2004). Social exchange in China: The double-edged sword of guanxi. Journal of Business Ethics, 55(4), 353–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1526-5
Wong, Y. H., Leung, T. K. P., Hung, H., & Ngai, E. W. T. (2007). A model of guanxi development: Flexibility, commitment and capital exchange. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 18(8), 875–887. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783360701350607
Worthington, R., & Whittaker, T. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Xin, K. R., & Pearce, J. L. (1996). Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6), 1641–1658. https://doi.org/10.2307/257072
Yang, C. F. (2001). A critical review of the conceptualization of guanxi and renqing. In C. F. Yang (Ed.), The Interpersonal Relationship, Affection, and Trust of the Chinese: From an Interactional Perspective [In Chinese] (pp. 3–26). Yuan Liou.
Yen, D. A., Barnes, B. R., & Wang, C. L. (2011). The measurement of guanxi: Introducing the GRX scale. Industrial Marketing Management, 40(1), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2010.09.014
Zhang, Z., & Zhang, M. (2013). Guanxi, communication, power, and conflict in industrial buyer-seller relationships: Mitigations against the cultural background of harmony in China. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 20(2), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/1051712X.2013.775625
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, M., Bedford, O. Measuring Guanxi Quality in the Workplace. J Bus Psychol 37, 581–599 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09762-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09762-3