Abstract
Middle school is a cornerstone for success in high school. However, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement of adolescents often decline as they transition from elementary to middle school, resulting in lower school grades and more challenging behaviors, especially for adolescents with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT), a classroom management program based on school-wide positive behavior support, has been found to be effective in elementary general and special education classrooms. The present study, a randomized control trial of CW-FIT for middle schools (CW-FIT MS), evaluated the effects on class-wide on-task behavior, as well as the on-task and disruptive behaviors of students identified as at risk for EBD. Participants included 629 students (70 identified as at risk) enrolled in 28 middle school classrooms across five Title I schools representing diverse geographic, ethnic, and socioeconomic areas. The study also addressed research questions regarding effects of the intervention on teacher praise and reprimands, as well as teacher and student social validity. Results suggested that CW-FIT MS was associated with improvements in class-wide and at-risk student on-task behavior, student disruptions, teacher praise, and teacher reprimand rates. Both teachers and students reported the intervention to be socially valid. Study limitations and areas for future research are addressed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akos, P., Rose, R. A., & Orthner, D. (2015). Sociodemographic moderators of middle school transition effects on academic achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(2), 170–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614529367
Albright, J. L., Safer, L. A., Sims, P. A., Tagaris, A., Glasgow, D., Sekulich, K. M., & Zaharis, M. C. (2017). What factors impact why novice middle school teachers in a large midwestern urban school district leave after their initial year of teaching. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 12(1), 53–68.
Back, L. T., Polk, E., Keys, C. B., & McMahon, S. D. (2016). Classroom management, school staff relations, school climate, and academic achievement: Testing a model with urban high schools. Learning Environments Research, 19(3), 397–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-016-9213-x
Bugler, M., McGeown, S., & St Clair-Thompson, H. (2016). An investigation of gender and age differences in academic motivation and classroom behaviour in adolescents. Educational Psychology, 36(7), 1196–1218. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1035697
Caldarella, P., Williams, L., Jolstead, K. A., & Wills, H. P. (2017). Managing student behavior in an elementary school music classroom: A study of class-wide function-related intervention teams. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 35(3), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123315626229
Caldarella, P., Larsen, R. A. A., Williams, L., Wills, H. P., & Wehby, J. H. (2019a). Teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios: Behavioral response of students at risk for EBD compared with typically developing peers. Education and Treatment of Children, 42(7), 447–468. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2019.0021
Caldarella, P., Wills, H. P., Anderson, D. H., & Williams, L. (2019b). Managing student behavior in the middle grades using class-wide function-related intervention teams. Research in Middle Level Education, 42(7), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2019.1654799
Chen, P. -Y., Scheibel, G. A., Henley, V. M., & Wills, H. P. (2021). Multi-tiered classroom management intervention in a middle school classroom: Initial investigation of CW-FIT-Middle School tier 1 and Self-Management. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007211017327
Conley, L., Marchant, M., & Caldarella, P. (2014). A comparison of teacher perceptions and research-based categories of student behavior difficulties. Education, 134(4), 439–451.
Cook, B. G., Collins, L. W., Cook, S. C., & Cook, L. (2016). A replication by any other name: A systematic review of replicative intervention studies. Remedial and Special Education, 37(4), 223–234.
Cook, C. R., Grady, E. A., Long, A. C., Renshaw, T., Codding, R. S., Fiat, A., & Larson, M. (2017). Evaluating the impact of increasing general education teachers’ ratio of positive-to-negative interactions on students’ classroom behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19(2), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300716679137
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2009). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R. M. Lerner & L. D. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Vol. 1. Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed., pp. 404–434). Wiley.
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage–environment fit on adolescents’ experiences in schools and families. American Psychologist, 48(2), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.48.2.90
Hecker, B., Young, E. L., & Caldarella, P. (2014). Teacher perspectives on behaviors of middle and junior high school students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. American Secondary Education, 42(2), 20–32.
Horner, R., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. (2010). Examining the evidence for school-wide positive behavior support. Focus on Exceptional Children, 42, 1–14.
Hunter, W. C., & Haydon, T. (2019). Implementing a classroom management package in an urban middle school: A case study. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988x.2018.1504740
Kamps, D., Wills, H., Dawson-Bannister, H., Heitzman-Powell, L., Kottwitz, E., Hansen, B., & Fleming, K. (2015). Class-wide function-related intervention teams “CW-FIT” efficacy trial outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17(3), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300714565244
Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research (Vol. 1). Pearson/A & B.
Ledford, J. R., Ayres, K. M., Lane, J. D., & Lam, M. F. (2015). Identifying issues and concerns with the use of interval-based systems in single case research using a pilot simulation study. The Journal of Special Education, 49(2), 104–117.
MacSuga-Gage, A. S., & Simonsen, B. (2015). Examining the effects of teacher-directed opportunities to respond on student outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(2), 211–239. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2015.0009
Maggin, D. M., Pustejovsky, J. E., & Johnson, A. H. (2017). A meta-analysis of school-based group contingency interventions for students with challenging behavior: An update. Remedial and Special Education, 38(6), 353–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517716900
McKee, M. T., & Caldarella, P. (2016). Middle school predictors of high school performance: A case study of dropout risk indicators. Education, 136, 515–529.
Mitchell, M. M., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2013). Examining classroom influences on student perceptions of school climate: The role of classroom management and exclusionary discipline strategies. Journal of School Psychology, 51(5), 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.05.005
Monson, K. D., Caldarella, P., Anderson, D. H., & Wills, H. P. (2020). Improving student behavior in middle school art classrooms: Initial investigation of CW-FIT tier 1. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22(1), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719864704
Oberle, E. (2018). Early adolescents’ emotional well-being in the classroom: The role of personal and contextual assets. Journal of School Health, 88(2), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12585
Office of Special Education Programs. (2015). Supporting and responding to student behavior: Evidence-based classroom strategies for teachers. Office of Special Education Programs. http://www.pbis.org/resources/supporting-and-responding-to-behavior-evidence-based-classroom-strategies-for-teachers.
Orr, R. K., Caldarella, P., Hansen, B. D., & Wills, H. P. (2019). Managing student behavior in a middle school special education classroom using CW-FIT tier 1. Journal of Behavioral Education, 29(1), 168–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09325-w
Pas, E. T., Cash, A. H., O’Brennan, L., Debnam, K. J., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). Profiles of classroom behavior in high schools: Associations with teacher behavior management strategies and classroom composition. Journal of School Psychology, 53(2), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.12.005
Pianta, R. C., & Hamre, B. K. (2009). Classroom processes and positive youth development: Conceptualizing, measuring, and improving the capacity of interactions between teachers and students. New Directions for Youth Development, 2009(121), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.295
Pustejovsky, J. E., & Swan, D. M. (2015). Four methods for analyzing partial interval recording data, with application to single-case research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50(3), 365–380.
Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Puri, R., & Goel, N. (2011). Supporting children’s mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022714
Royer, D. J., Lane, K. L., Dunlap, K. D., & Ennis, R. P. (2019). A systematic review of teacher-delivered behavior-specific praise on K–12 student performance. Remedial and Special Education, 40(2), 112–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517751054
Salle, T. L., George, H. P., McCoach, D. B., Polk, T., & Evanovich, L. L. (2018). An examination of school climate, victimization, and mental health problems among middle school students self-identifying with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 43(3), 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742918768045
Simonsen, B., Freeman, J., Swain-Bradway, J., George, H. P., Putnam, R., Lane, K. L., Sprague, J., & Hershfeldt, P. (2019). Using data to support educators’ implementation of positive classroom behavior support (PCBS) practices. Education and Treatment of Children, 42(2), 265–289. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2019.0013
Speight, R., Whitby, P., & Kucharczyk, S. (2020). Impact of CW-FIT on student and teacher behavior in a middle school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22(4), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300720910133
Stroup, W. W., Milliken, G. A., Claassen, E. A., and Wolfinger, R. D. (2018). SAS for mixed models: Introduction and basic applications. SAS Institute Inc.
Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2002). Introduction to the special series on positive behavior support in schools. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(3), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266020100030101
Walker, H. M., Severson, H. H., & Feil, E. G. (2014). Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (2nd ed.). Pacific Northwest Publishing.
Wang, M. T., & Degol, J. L. (2016). School climate: A review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 315–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9319-1
Weeden, M., Wills, H. P., Kottwitz, E., & Kamps, D. (2016). The effects of a class-wide behavior intervention for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 42(1), 285–293. https://doi.org/10.17988/BD-14-12.1
Wills, H. P., Caldarella, P., Mason, B. A., Lappin, A., & Anderson, D. H. (2019). Improving student behavior in middle schools: Results of a classroom management intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 21(4), 213–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719857185
Wills, H. P., Iwaszuk, W. M., Kamps, D., & Shumate, E. (2014). CW-FIT: Group contingency effects across the day. Education and Treatment of Children, 37(2), 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0016
Wills, H. P., Kamps, D., Caldarella, P., Wehby, J., & Swinburne Romine, R. (2018a). Class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT): Student and teacher outcomes from a multisite randomized replication trial. The Elementary School Journal, 119(1), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1086/698818
Wills, H., Kamps, D., Fleming, K., & Hansen, B. (2016). Student and teacher outcomes of the class-wide function-related intervention team efficacy trial. Exceptional Children, 83(1), 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402916658658
Wills, H. P., Kamps, D., Hansen, B., Conklin, C., Bellinger, S., Neaderhiser, J., & Nsubunga, B. (2010). The class-wide function-based intervention team program. Preventing School Failure, 54(3), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903496230
Wills, H. P., Wehby, J., Caldarella, P., Kamps, D., & Swinburne Romine, R. (2018b). Classroom management that works: A replication trial of the CW-FIT program. Exceptional Children, 84(4), 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918771321
Young, E. L., Caldarella, P., Richardson, M. J., & Young, K. R. (2012). Positive behavior support in secondary schools: A practical guide. Guilford Press.
Funding
This research was funded in part by a grant from the Institute of Education Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education (R324A160279) awarded to the University of Kansas in cooperation with Brigham Young University. The opinions presented in this article are those of the authors, and no endorsement by the funding agency is intended or implied.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We declare no conflicts of interest
Ethical approval
The research reported in this manuscript was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association. Approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the University of Kansas, which also approved the informed consent procedures used.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wills, H.P., Caldarella, P., Williams, L. et al. Middle School Classroom Management: A Randomized Control Trial of Class-wide Function-Related Intervention Teams for Middle Schools (CW-FIT MS). J Behav Educ 32, 189–211 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-021-09455-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-021-09455-0