Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Validation of a Measure of Parental Readiness for Treatment in a Clinical Sample of Children with Disruptive Behavior

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study validated the factor structure of the Parent Readiness for Change Scale (PRFCS) using a clinical sample of parents presenting for assessment and treatment because of their children’s disruptive behaviors to an urban children’s mental health program in Canada. Parents or guardians of 138 children (21.7 % female) aged six to twelve completed the PRFCS as part of their clinical assessment. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to identify the factor structure of the PRFCS and its potential utility in this clinical population. Construct validity was tested by examining parental readiness in relation to children’s internalizing/externalizing problems, parenting behavior, and treatment participation. The original factor structure was replicated, suggesting three factors: Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Action. A second-order factor reflecting overall Readiness was observed that encompassed all three of these factors. A truncated version of the scale that included only a subset of items was determined to offer the best fit to data. Parents reporting higher levels of readiness had children with more emotional/behavior problems, reported higher levels of inconsistent discipline, and missed fewer treatment sessions. The PRFCS appears to be applicable to a clinical sample of children with disruptive behavior problems, and is associated with meaningful child- and parent-level constructs that are relevant in the context of clinical service delivery. Further research to develop clinical cut-offs may be useful in order for this promising theoretically-grounded measure to be effectively used as a screening tool to assist with treatment selection.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. An alternative to the second-order factor models of Model 1 (Extended) and Model 2 (Simplified) is a single-factor model that specifies items from all three subscales (Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Action) as indicating a single factor representing ‘Readiness’. However, such models were not as suggestive as the second-order factor models: (1) When using the 21 items from the Extended Model, chi-square difference testing revealed that the second-order factor model provided a better fit to the data than the single-factor model, Δχ2 (Δdf = 3) = 15.1, p < 0.01; (2) When using the 17 items from the Simplified Model, chi-square difference testing revealed that the second-order factor model again provided a better fit to the data than the single-factor model, Δχ2 (Δdf = 2) = 16.4, p < 0.001. Thus, the best-fitting model seems to be one in which the first-order factors for Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Action are specified first, followed by a second-order factor representing overall ‘Readiness’.

References

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables: Wiley (New York).

  • Brestan, E. V., Ondersma, S. J., Simpson, S. M., & Gurwitch, R. H. (1999). Application of stage of change theory to parenting behavior: Validating the Parent Readiness for Change Scale. Poster presented at the 7th Florida Conference on Child Health Psychology, Gainesville, FL.

  • Brestan, E. V., Ondersma, S. J., Simpson, S. M., & Gurwitch, R. (1999). Application of stage of change theory to parenting behavior: Validating the parent readiness to change scale. Paper presented at the Florida Conference on Child Health Psychology.

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research: The Guilford Press.

  • Budd, R. J., & Rollnick, S. (1996). The structure of the readiness to change questionnaire: a test of Prochaska & DiClemente’s transtheoretical model. British Journal of Health Psychology, 1(4), 365–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F., West, S. G., & Sousa, K. H. (2006). A comparison of bifactor and second-order models of quality of life. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41(2), 189–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. F. (2011). Scale development: Theory and applications (Vol. 26): Sage.

  • DiClemente, C. C., & Prochaska, J. O. (1998). Toward a comprehensive, transtheoretical model of change: Stages of change and addictive behaviors.

  • DiClemente, C. C., Schlundt, D., & Gemmell, L. (2004). Readiness and stages of change in addiction treatment. The American Journal on Addictions, 13, 103–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, F., & Simmons, J. Q., III. (1992). Parent behavioral training: why and when some parents drop out. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21(4), 322–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gavita, O., & Joyce, M. (2008). A review of the effectiveness of group cognitively enhanced behavioral based parent programs designed for reducing disruptive behavior in children. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 8(2), 185–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 125–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2003). Using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 534–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Owens, J. S., Pelham, W. E., Jr., Swanson, J., Conners, C. K., Hinshaw, S. P., et al. (2000). Parent cognitions as predictors of child treatment response in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(6), 569–583.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C., & Ohan, J. L. (2005). The importance of parental attributions in families of children with attention-deficity/hyperactivity and disruptive behavior disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(3), 167–182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2000). Perceived barriers to treatment participation and treatment acceptability among antisocial children and their families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9(2), 157–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Evidence-based treatment research: advances, limitations, and next steps. American Psychologist, 685–698.

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Wassell, G. (1998). Treatment completion and therapeutic change among children referred for outpatient therapy. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 29(4), 332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Wassell, G. (2000). Predictors of barriers to treatment and therapeutic change in outpatient therapy for antisocial children and their families. Mental Health Services Research, 2(1), 27–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., Mazurick, J. L., & Siegel, T. C. (1994). Treatment outcome among children with externalizing disorder who terminate prematurely versus those who complete psychotherapy. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(4), 549–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., Holland, L., & Crowley, M. (1997). Family experience of barriers to treatment and premature termination from child thrapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(453–463).

  • La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Lochman, J. E. (2009). Moving beyond efficacy and effectiveness in child and adolescent intervention research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 373–382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Littell, J. H., & Girvin, H. (2005a). Caregivers’ readiness for change: predictive validity in a child welfare sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 59–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Littell, J. H., & Girvin, H. (2005b). Caregivers’ readiness for change: predictive validity in a child welfare sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(1), 59–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2004). The coping power program for preadolescent aggressive boys and their parents: outcome effects at the 1-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(4), 571–578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markie-Dadds, C., & Sanders, M. (2006). Self-directed triple P (positive parenting program) for mothers with children at-risk of developing conduct problems. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 34, 259–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnaughy, E. A., Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1983). Stages of change in psychotherapy: measurement and sample profiles. Psychotherapy Theory Research & Practice, 20(3), 368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnaughy, E. A., DiClemente, C. C., Prochaska, J. O., & Velicier, W. F. (1989). Stages of change in psychotherapy: a follow-up report. Psychotherapy, 26, 494–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendez, J. L., Carpenter, J. L., LaForett, D. R., & Cohen, J. S. (2009). Parental engagement and barriers to participation in a community-based preventive intervention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 44, 1–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullins, S. M., Bard, D. E., & Ondersma, S. J. (2005). Comprehensive services for mothers of drug-exposed infants: Relations between program participation and subsequent child protective services reports. Child Maltreatment, 10(1), 72–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2010). Mplus (Version 6). Los Angeles, CA: Author.

  • Niec, L. N., Barnett, M. L., Triemstra, K., & Solomon, D. (2013). Differences in mothers’ and fathers’ readiness for parent training. in preparation.

  • Nock, M. K., & Ferriter, C. (2005). Parent management of attendance and adherence in child and adolescent therapy: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(2), 149–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Randomized controlled trial of a brief intervention for increasing participation in parent management training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 872–879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., & Miller, G. E. (1994). Family-based treatment for childhood antisocial behavior: experimental influences on dropout and engagement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1992). Stages of change in the modification of problem behaviors. In M. Herson, R. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification (Vol. 28, pp. 184–218). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102–1114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66(4), 507–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satterfield, W. A., Buelow, S. A., Lyddon, W. J., & Johnson, J. (1995). Client stages of change and expectations about counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(4), 476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Wootton, J. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25(3), 317–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, S., Armstrong, L. M., Silver, R. B., Berger, R., & Seifer, R. (2012). Embedding the family check-up and evidence-based parenting programmes in Head Start to increase parent engagement and reduce conduct problems in young children. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 5(3), 194–207.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (1995). Parent motivation to enroll in parenting skills programs: a model of family context and health belief predictors. Journal of Family Psychology, 9(3), 294–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, H., & Remsing, L. (2007). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with oppositional defiant disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(1), 126–141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, L., Otten, R., Engels, R. C., Vermulst, A. A., & Janssens, J. M. (2010). Psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of teh strengths and difficulties questionnaire for 4–12 year olds: a review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13, 254–274.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, S. (2001). Back to the drawing board? a review of applications of the transtheoretical model to substance use. Addiction, 96(1), 175–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B., & Daniel, L. G. (1996). Factor analytic evidence for the construct validity of scores: a historical overview and some guidelines. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56(2), 197–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waschbusch, D. A., Sparkes, S. J., & Northern Partners In Action for Children and Youth. (2003). Rating scale assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms: is there a normal distribution and does it matter? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 21, 261–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., Hollinsworth, T., & Kolpacoff, M. (1989). The long-term effectiveness and clinical significance of three cost-effective training programs for families with conduct-problem children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(4), 550–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wenning, K., & King, S. (1995). Parent orientation meetings to improve attendance and access at a child psychiatric clinic. Psychiatric Services, 46(8), 831–833.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Hartung, C. M., Lahey, B. B., Loney, J., & Pelham, W. E. (1999). Utility of behavior ratings by examiners during assessments of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(6), 463–472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williford, A. P., Graves, K. N., Shelton, T. L., & Woods, J. E. (2009). Contextual risk and parental attributions of children’s behavior as factors that influence the acceptability of empirically supported treatments. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 4(3), 226–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Dr. Andrade is a recipient of a CIHR Canadian Child Health Clinician Scientist Training Program (CCHCSP) Career Development Award and New Investigator Fellowship with the Ontario Mental Health Foundation.

Conflict of Interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Experimental Participants

The current study was conducted with the informed consent of all participants. This project was approved by the hospital Reseach Ethics Board.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S, Canada

    Mark Wade

  2. Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 80 Workman Way, Toronto, ON, M6J1H4, Canada

    Mark Wade & Brendan F. Andrade

  3. Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

    Brendan F. Andrade

Authors
  1. Mark Wade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brendan F. Andrade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brendan F. Andrade.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wade, M., Andrade, B.F. Validation of a Measure of Parental Readiness for Treatment in a Clinical Sample of Children with Disruptive Behavior. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 37, 184–195 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9458-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9458-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation